Introduction

The lamp is an artificial light source, a device that redestering the light of the lamp inside large bodily corners and providing an angular concentration of the light flux. The main task of the lamp is the dispersion and direction of light to illuminate buildings, their internal premises adjacent to the buildings of territories, streets, etc. The lamps can also perform a decorative function.

The purpose of the test work is to form a meaningful and reasonable approach to the design of the work of decorative and applied arts based on the analysis of historical traditions, the specifics of artistic and shaped decisions and technological conditions for the existence of a decorative work in various cultural and historical era, taking into account modern trends in interior design and clothing.

Tasks of test work:

• - to analyze the evolution of the household subject as a work of decorative and applied art in various historical, style and technological conditions;
• - to search and develop effective ways to supply the work of decorative and applied arts and folk crafts, design exposure and its individual exhibits.

History of the lamp

The history of the lamps takes its beginning since the time of primitive people, when the fire was constantly maintained in the midst of the cave, which allowed primitive people not only to cook food and warm up, but also to highlight their unpretentious housing. Such a kind of focus is the prototype of the first floor lamp. The need of a cave person to express their thoughts through the rocky figure also caused the need to have additional lateral lighting. This lighting was the torch that was attached to the crevings of the cave. And much later, in the Middle Ages, for fastening the torch on the wall began to apply forged clamps of various designs. Such an uncomplicated device is the investigator of today's sconce.

The ancient Romans and the Greeks widely used floor lamps, which were a tripod, completed by a bowl with a combustible substance, which was often added and aromatic substances. Kandelabra are already a later species of such a lamp. Instead of tripod, Kandelyabr had a single support that had a wide foundation for greater stability. Such a type of lamp was a prototype of a well-friendly modern lane.

Another type of illuminating device, also known from previous periods, was lampdarium, which was also stationary. Suspended lamps of that time were in the form of oval bowls that were attached to the console or ceiling beam. A combustible liquid was in the bowl, which could be oil, animal fat or oil. This liquid was immersed by wick, which was twisted from plant fibers. Such types of lamps are called lamps and lampions.

The candle gave rise to a serious breakthrough in the field of lamps. Distinguishing great convenience and being simple and economical in production in comparison with other devices, the candle contributed to the creation of a whole family of various lamps, and the candelabr acquired elegance and artistic design.

At the end of the seventeenth century, the formation of the overall chandelier design was over, which now served as the basis for hundreds of candles and covered huge ballrooms. The chandelier of that time was a massive metal frame, which was attached by a variety of glass pendants or natural stones. Weight such a chandelier could reach the order of tons and to serve it, a very powerful mechanism was required. After all, in order to light the candles in the chandelier, it was necessary to first lower the chandelier, and then, already with lit candles - raise. Cut candles with special metal caps, which were attached to a long handle. The candles themselves were made at first of the animal fat, and then began to be made from beeswax. Fityl in such candles served as reed. At a later time, cotton and cannabis fibers began to use as a fityl.

Cerosene came to replace the candles, which spawned the creation of a lamp, called the Bat Mouse. The design of this lamp and today serves as a prototype when creating a set of varieties of lamps that find their use in the kitchens, in children's rooms in the form of various desktop lamps and sconces.

Gas lights have become truly a revolutionary solution of outdoor lighting issues. Along with the kerosene lamps, gas horns were smashed unrestrained, but regularly carried their service on the lighting of the streets. Successful permission of the problem with soothery occurred in 1799, when the Italian physicist Alessandro Volt was invented with electricity. In the field of creating lamps, various styles began to develop rapidly.

Today you can choose the style to illuminate your home in the Spirit, which is closest to you. It may be the style of minimalism, and pop art, and the AR Deco, and High Tech, etc.

The end of the XIX and the beginning of the XX centuries enriched the architecture of the freedom of using artificial light. Window windows, side stained glass windows, continuous glazing of facades did not cancel, however, historically established types of natural lighting. It is possible that everything is said in this area. The stormy architectural work of the end of the XX and the beginning of the XXI centuries was not marked by the invention of something new. A skillful combination of historically emerging forms with new materials and technologies generates amazing objects. Natural lighting is used in them very actively.

Top light and light lights received great distribution. Artificial lighting, despite its electric nature, is divided into the same main groups: top, lower, lateral. It is complemented and diverse well-known point light bulbs, allowing to evenly illuminate the room and create bizarre light compositions. Hidden sources, furniture backlight and interior items serve to create additional effects. Let's say, allow you to expand or, on the contrary, narrow the space, visually change its geometry, expand the emphasis.

Brief history of the emergence of lamps

Throughout the stage of human existence, he was accompanied by light. And if at the beginning, primitive torches and fires were used as an artificial light, then with the development of civilization, the lighting devices were strongly modified. How the sconce lamps appeared. Inhabitants of ancient Egypt The invention of the first oil lamps.

Such primitive lamps were meter columns, with oil-beams with oil. These peculiar lamps are usually performed in the form of a flower. In ancient Greece, vessels were used for these purposes with hot coal or a squeezed wood chips. Such lamps were made of clay and covered with varnish. Pendant metal lamps are first mentioned during the reign of the Byzantine emperor Konstantin. On Russia, these lamps have come in bulk after the adoption of Christianity and called panicadyl. Panadyl is considered the prototype of modern chandeliers.

The very word "chandelier" appeared later, in the XVII century, in France, and means "lighting". At the beginning of the nineteenth century, with the advent of chandeliers with oil lamps, there was no need to use candlelight lamps, and the need for the direction of light spawned lamps. From the second half of the XIX century, lamps on kerosene were enormous popularity, which, later, were ousted with electrollami lamps. For making chandeliers began to use a variety of materials: metal, glass of fabric, wood plastic.

Many historians tend to believe that the era of the active development of humanity began from the moment when primitive people learned how to produce fire, use it for cooking, heating and lighting housing. The fire was considered the gift of the gods, he was revered and burned, legends and myths, transmitted from generation to generation.

History of the lamp - from the lamp to gas lanterns

Over time, people have learned not only to control the fire, but also create lighting devices in the history of mankind.

Lamps and torches

The very first lamp invented by man was the usual torch. In the Middle Ages, it began to fix on the wall using special clamps. The prototype of modern equipment was used in ancient Greece. Here, special designs - tripods, equipped with a combustible bowl, as well as suspended lamps were used here for lighting the premises.

Candles

The next stage of evolution is considered the appearance of a candle. The first candles were made from wax, which was distinguished by a very high price. That is why only representatives of the aristocracy could afford a long luxury. In the 19th century, the French chemist Michel Chevrool first proposed to replace the wax with a cheaper analogue - Stearin, who practically did not smell and did not highlight soot when burning.

Gas lights

Further development of science in the field of chemistry made it possible to use a variety of combustible gases to illuminate. For the first time, such lanterns appeared in Europe, where they received quite widespread. The main component, the so-called "luminous gas" was benzene. It was obtained by pyrolysis of fat of marine mammals, and a little later - from coal with his coking.

Incandescent lamps and LED lamps

Incandescent lamps

The history of the emergence of the lamp in the traditional execution for us began after the opening of electricity. Its use discovered for inventors almost unlimited possibilities, since it made it possible to significantly increase the temperature of heating the light sources and, thus, increase the intensity of the light flux. The first conductive materials that were used for heating were coal thread, molybdenum, tungsten and its alloys. Sources of light decided to put in glass tanks filled with inert gases that protected them from external influences. Today, a tungsten thread is used to produce traditional incandescent lamps, which can heat up to the indicators 2800-3200 0 S.

LED equipment

Since the appearance of the first lamp and until today's days, the inventors tried to solve two main tasks: to increase their efficiency and make the most secure as possible. It was possible to achieve excellent results with the appearance of LED equipment. The advantages of such products include efficiency, no harmful components, external resistance. The only drawback of LED equipment is considered its high cost, however, gradually the price of LED lamps is becoming more and more affordable.

Despite the excellent results, the specialists are confident that with the advent of LED equipment the history of the lamp has not ended. Ahead of the inventors is waiting for the mass of exciting discoveries, which will provide luminaires maximum efficiency, and our life is comfort.

The very first source of artificial light was, as already mentioned, the hearth. Thus, initially residential premises were illuminated by one source located in the center. The need for additional lateral lighting arose simultaneously with the need for a person to express themselves in rocky paintings. In his work, a torch helped him who was installed in the gap between the stones. In the Middle Ages to strengthen the torch on the wall plane, wrought clamps were used. It is this simple device that served as a prototype of the sconce.

In Greece and Rome, floor lamps consisting of a tripod and bowls with a combustible substance were widespread (often with aromatic additives). Later modification of this lamp - Kandelabr. Unlike the tripod, he had the only support, wide at the base. In different cultures, the same lamp could be called differently. For example, Shandal at the Persians or Menoroua at Jews.

Another lighting device, known since those times, lampadaries. Like the candelabr, he was stationary. Suspended luminaires were called lamps and lamps and were one or more oval cups attached to ceiling beams or consoles. Oil, animal fat or oil poured into the bowl. Fithel fiber opted in a combustible liquid.

The appearance of the candle was a serious breakthrough in the field of creating new types of lamps. It was largely more convenient than all other devices - not so smoked, it turned out to be significantly more economical and easy to produce. It was originally made from animal fat, and then from the bee wax with phytyt from the cane. Later, the phytyl began to make cotton or hemp fibers. The candle gave rise to a whole lamp lamp. Kandelabr became an elegant branching design. At the end of the XVII century, chandelier was finally formed. Palace chandeliers on hundreds of candles were illuminated by huge balls for balls. In stocks between windows, the sconces are as brightly flawed. Corridors were covered by fringe candelabras. All of them were reflected in numerous mirrors and their gold-plated frames. Cut candles with metal caps on long handles. The chandelier consisted of a massive metal frame and a large number of glass suspensions (transparent or color) or natural stones. She could have been wearing about a ton. To omit such a design, light the candles, and then lift all this, a powerful mechanism was required.

Era Kerosene, who came after this, gave us hit in the form of a lamp "bat". The design of kerosene lamps was quite exquisied (it is only worth remembering the famous Tiffany desktop lamps). Until now, these are not very practical, but the lamps are associated in the country's summer houses associated with the Epoch of Decadence. And the above-mentioned "bat" was repeatedly used by designers to create new varieties of industrial style lamps. This solution looks good in the kitchens and in children. And numerous constituents of table lamps and nights of the era of modern on it, perfectly complement the interiors of bedrooms and cabinets. Modest workers - gas lights committed a real revolution in street lighting. Their interior variety, gas horns, peacefully got along with kerosene lamps. And those and others are desperately smoked and not, as they are called environmentally friendly. Probably, that is why it was worth it to come up with electricity.

Electricity is familiar and ordinary. Electric lamps Great set. The variety of their forms and materials is simply incredible. More details we will talk about them later. In the meantime, I just would like to summarize all the above.

In primitive dwellings of primitive man, there were both natural and artificial lighting. Natural was subdivided on the top ( chimney) and side (inlet). Artificial was central (hearth) and side (torch).

In the Middle Ages, oil lamps were used before the appearance of the candles. Early candlesticks have been preserved very little, since during the wars they were interpretable on coins. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the candlesticks were injured from a thin sheet metal.

By the end of the XVII century. Skilled Masters-Hugugenot, who fled from France from religious persecution, introduced in practice the casting of candlesticks from solid silver. The base, standing (leg) and the candle itself was distinguished separately, and then soldered. The cast candlesticks were heavy, durable, often with a complex embossed decor.

Fashion of the beginning of the XVIII century. On simple, minimally decorated candlesticks changed in the 1730s. richer ornamental. Some talented masters adopted the lush style of French Rococo. The most elegant candle holders of that time are pressed artfully cast standing in the form of female shapes holding over an outlet head for a candle. By 1780, fashionable ornamentics gave way to a restrained decor of the neoclassical period. At the same time, the growth of such industrial centers such as Birmingham and Sheffield, provided mass production of candlesticks. Now they were minted from sheet silver, and the hollow parts for stability were filled with a resin, a tree, sometimes with metal.

For the production of less expensive candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield, a mechanical chacking process was used laying sheet Silver in a mold with a relief pattern (from the 1760s.).

Like the candlesticks, the candelabras were often pair. They went into use of the middle of the 20th century, but most of the preserved copies refers to the XVIII - nineteenth centuries. At first, the candelabra did with two simple horns. The number of horns increased from the end of the XVIII century, when the lunchtime moved from the daytime to the evening.

Mass of useful accessories, including tongs for taking a car and candlesticks for thin candles, also made of silver. Tongs for removing the car Nagar with a candle - a tool with two rings, like the scissors, with a small box, were used to cut the burnt wick until the invention of self-absorbing wick in the 1820s. Small candlesticks were intended for thin candles, dug bangked the tube, lit writing tables or melted the surguck for sealing letters.

In the Xih century Decorative style in accordance with the Victorian taste gained exaggerated personality. In recent years, the century rarely resorted to the injection rarely, since this reception of silver formation became prohibitively expensive, and the mechanization of production assumed the release of non-paired candlesticks or candelabers, and more sets.

At the end of the XIX - early twentieth century. Many masters' silver affairs opposed mass production. They focused on work in the style of medieval hand craft using primitive materials and simple design in the spirit of Japanese art. From the styles of "Arts and Crafts" and AR Nouveau to the art deco wizard XX. They managed to cover and revive historical styles, and a minimalist modern design.

First lamps

The first lighting device was apparently a stone vessel with a fat of some animal and dry grass. Torch with such contents were able to illuminate the road in dark nights and gloomy cables.

Then there were examples of candles - hollow cane stems, filled with the same fat. These devices produced a lot of soot, and they came to replace others, from beeswax, with cotton phytyl. The light was also used - a thin sins, which was clamping the split rod.

Think only that until the XIX century other sources of lighting for premises, except candles, Lucin and oil lamps were not!

To light from a small flame candles It was more, in the big palaces, there were mirrors near them - so it was much lighter.

Evolution lamps expanded this subject row. The first candelabra appeared - candlesticks for one or more candles, then appeared suspended lamps (Khosto and panicadilo). They suspended on chains in the center of churches or palaces, and were decorated with images of birds and sun. There were devices for several lamps - lampadaries.

Aromatic oils, oil and kerosene were used as a combustible fluid.

Palm of championship in the invention of the first light bulb belongs to the Russian: electrician Alexander Lodody In 1872, invented the incandescent lamp consisting of needles wrapped in threads. Such lamps could burn 40 hours.

Lodyodogin also identified the properties of tungsten, which became universally used in the production of lamps. And finally, in 1799, the Italian physicist Volt created the first chemical source of the current.

Later appeared luminiscent and very economical halogen lamps.

History of development of artificial lighting devices

Acquaintance with the history of the development of household lamps helps to better understand the relationship and mutual influence of technology and culture in these objects of the subject matter of the dwelling, extremely diverse in their forms. The first literary mention of the lamp we meet Homer. When describing Odyssey and telemakhi, bringing groom's weapons, says: "... and Athena Pallada them, invisibly holding a golden lamp, shining."

The centuries-old history of household luminaires demonstrates the dependence of their form from the development of artificial lighting, materials and technology of manufacturing, architecture, decorative and applied art and, finally, design.

Sources of artificial light of the ancient world - torches, rays and oil lamps. Oil luminaires consisted of a vessel for cannabis or linseed oil and wick. The material for their manufacture most often served clay, less often bronze. Many samples of such lamps of the period of ancient Greece and Rome remained. Due to the weak power of the light of one phytyl, the oil vessels were supplied with several wicks, and several vessels were sometimes consisted into the composition of one lamp. The essential achievement of artificial lighting techniques was to create in VT. BC e. Callimakhi Fitila from the so-called Carpasian flax, a non-aggravated material resembling asbestos, mined on Crete Island. Such a "restless fire" was buried in the sanctuary of Athena in Erehechteion. It mentions in the "Allala descriptions" in IIIS. n. e. Traveler and geographer PAsaniy.

As a widespread household, the lamps have become an object of artistic creativity in ancient times. Already at that time, their forms and structures were very diverse. At the same time, almost all existing types of lamps on the method and the place of their installation appeared.

Historically analyzing the evolution of the form of household lamps, you can trace the occurrence and development of their structures and decor. At the same time, sustainable structures are easily detected, independent of the change of architectural and artistic styles. Many types of structures occurring in deep antiquity, preserved to this day. Other types of structures turned out to be less durable. For example, with the appearance of electricity, we went to the past that existed in the XIX century. Portable kerosene luminaires-mugs. Among the preserved structures, one-minded lamps can be called with an annular or rozing structure, desktop lamps with a central stand, wall lamps type "Bra" (hand). These structures arose and developed in the period when the most common source of light was a candle.

The main reason for the preservation of the initial structures is their feasibility and rationality, as well as a certain inertness of human consciousness, the commitment of people to stereotypes. For example, the structure of the desktop candlestone with the central stand in the XIX century. It was used for kerosene lamps, although, in this case, it is less appropriate. At the same time, I had to mask the necessary tank for fuel.

When electrical lighting appeared, new types of structures were formed, rational with a new light source. However, many types of structures that cannot be specified to rational continue to be applied in electrical lamps. Today we see numerous examples of the use of structures and forms characteristic of candle and kerosene lamps.

Over the centuries, the lamp was considered as an integral element of the interior of the dwelling. Therefore, its form and decor developed in close connection with the form of interior equipment and submitted to the style of the arts in this area.

The lamp has always been an object of professional and folk decorative art. In the days of ancient Greece, Etruria and Rome, along with richly decorated bronze lamps, oil lamps made of burnt clay were made in large numbers. As examples of such ancient samples, lamps found during the excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii still in the XVIII century. And lamps from the excavations in Chersonese is already in our time (Fig. 1).

For decorating bronze lamps, architectural motifs, images of people and animals, vegetable and geometric ornaments were widely used. Already at that time it is easy to notice a lot in common in elements of lamps and furniture. Etruscan candelabra, like the furniture, had supports in the form of human legs or animal paws. As a diffusers (and rather, silicate glass appears in the bronze oil luminaires) in bronze oil luminaires.

Clay oil luminaires used in the dwelling of ordinary people are also different in shape. However, they use only the motives of the animal and plant world and there are no architectural motives. Most often, such lamps were transferred portable.

For many centuries in the houses of peasants in many countries of Northern Europe, including in Russia, the main source of light was a mud. To maintain the flame of the burning rays and the storage of new raysin, the so-called Svets were used. Most often they were made from metal. Sometimes wooden parts were used as the base. Svets were very diverse, they were decorated with various metal curls, and wooden parts were made by carved and sometimes covered with painting.

Artificial lighting over the centuries was carried out by candles. Safe and more convenient in operation, already in the XII century. In ancient Russia, they were used wide. Previously, other candles appeared, then wax, stearin, paraffin, spermacet, which burned longer and gave less than a nagar and smoke. All lighting devices XVI-XVIIIIV. Different designs, with the profits attached to them, in which the candles were inserted. The most common candlesticks were (Shandala) on a different amount of candles, for the manufacture of which used wood, bone, glass and china, but the most common was a durable fire-resistant metal.

As the foundry develops in Kievan Rus, in the IX century. Copper and silver panicadals and candlesticks are made. The name "Panadilo" or "Polycadilo" comes from the Greek word "Polyandelon", meaning a multi-deress. The most stable composition of the panicadene consisted of a central rod design with complex balusters (and later with balls), from which multi-tiered candles are branched (Fig. 4). In later times, the design of the panicadyl was based on the creation of many chandeliers.

Along with panicadyl in Russia, there was an even more ancient shape of the lamps - the integration of the Khoshos, which were like a round bowl suspended on chains and framed by a ring in which candles were installed. Interesting samples of Choros are available in the Granovy Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.

Sophisticated and large lamps were used mainly in churches, palaces and houses of rich people. Such lamps, as a rule, differed not only with dimensions (diameter of panicadil in some temples reach 3m), but also magnificent finishing, applying relief thread, artistic casting, valuable materials, painting, gilding.

A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by lamps ("running" or "remote"), used in the most solemn cases (in religious holidays, during the procession, with wedding and funeral rites) and therefore decorated with special luxury. The lanterns usually had a hexagon shape with mica walls that defended the flame candles from the wind.

With the development of construction and architecture in the XVIIIV. Numerous large mansions with a rich interior finish appeared. All this caused the need for new more efficient luminaires, which were "Stenniki" and chandeliers. The walls were shiny copper flat or concave circular, octagonal reflectors or curly shapes with candles attached to them, which hung on the wall. The bright walls of the walls that attracted attention were engraved, minted, decorated with patterns and images.

The most perfect in light stock and architectural relations were multi-minded chandeliers with crystal and colored glass. These diverse in shape, dimensions, materials, manufacturing techniques are a product of the appropriate era, both by architectural and technical solution. The use of such low-power light sources, as candles, led to the need to create large suspended lamps with a large number of candles. At the same time, medieval architects had to solve the complex problem of the composite bond scattered in a large volume of weak spots of individual candles into a single whole. The creation of a single luminous volume of the luminaire was provided by applying various decorative glass and, above all, crystal. In this regard, it is necessary to note the exceptional impact on the development of lamps, the formation and improvement of glass production.

In antiquity, the glass was expensive and low-quality. As the art glass plant develops, the glass for lamps is modified, takes a different shape and color. The glass is used for the first time in Venetian candle chandeliers as the main material. The main method of their manufacture was the layer of parts from the cooled mass of transparent glass, in which the Venetians differed unsurpassed virtuoso skill. Venetian stucco chandelier is usually collected from a beam of glass stems, freely "growing" up from one central glass bowl. The stems are decorated with flowers, leaves, often transit, candlesticks are installed in colors; chains from glass rings fall out of garlands; The central metal rod is hidden in glass ornaments. Venetian chandeliers, Zhilandoli, Kandelabra were typical baroque works.

Crystal, causing exceptional and constant interest of architects, causing the exceptional and constant interest of architects to change the lamps from the raw glass (including Venetian stucco glass). Crystal chandelier has repeatedly increased the visible number of light spots compared to the number of candles used, created a decorative game of light on small and large faceted parts made of glass based on the refraction and reflection of light, as well as on the effect dispersion Light triangular prismatic elements. The rolling flame of the light together with the crystal created a different visual effect under various areas of observation. Light crystal, slightly hesitating under the influence of ascending fluxes of warm air, combined the uniform composition of non-hard candles and created an exceptional emotional effect, turning the lamp into a light flowering structure, unsurpassed by decorative effect.

Crystal artificial, i.e. glass, got its name from mineral mining crystal. Crystal soft, it is easy to mechanically handling - a grave, deep grinding, polishing. For the first time, faceted crystal appeared in Bohemia in the XVIIV; In the XVIIIV In England, a cleaner and soft lead crystal appeared. At the heart of the domestic chandelier of the first half of the XVIIIV. It lies the use of a crystal belief from stylized oak leaves, star sockets, curly "vasiks" and balls made at the glass factory in Yamburg and then at the St. Petersburg Plant. The appearance in the chandeliers of colored painted glass Russian art glassmodes must. The blue and rose glass was most often used in the 70s - 80s XVIIIV., Ruby and Emerald green - at the end of this century. A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by the products of the Tula masters, made of steel.

In subsequent years, composite methods for placing crystal elements in various lamps under the structure, as well as the forms of these elements, depending on the technology of their manufacture and dominated architectural-artistic style.

The appearance of crystal lamps coincided with the breakdown of Baroque style. However, the most fully artistic advantages of Crystal revealed during the period of the domination of Rococo, classicism and an ampyr. Excellent samples of crystal luminaires created Russian architects of the XVIII and early XIX centuries.

In the middle of the XVIII At the same time in the furniture and in the lamps appear "headsets" or "kits", consisting of various methods for installing products, combined with a single artistic solution.

As the porcelain spread in Europe, it began to be used in decorative elements of lamps.

In the late XVIII - early XIX centuries. Lamps are becoming increasingly distribution, in which the bronze displaces the rest of the materials, including the glass. At the same time, chandeliers with oil lamps appear, which had significant advantages due to the greater brightness and duration of work. In these lamps, the tank with viscous oils was placed above the burner, which ensured the flow of fuel to the phytil. A lamp glasses appeared that defended the flames from the effects of air flows that created the traction and reduced the soot.

Important stages on the path of development of lamps were the creation of "Carcelian" and kerosene lamps. The first of them, invented by the French Karshel, had oil tanks with a "hourly" mechanism that injected oil into the burner. The kerosene lamp was invented by Pole Lukasevich in 1853. The principal difference of these lamps from oil lamps was the location of the burner above the tank; It turned out to be possible due to the fact that kerosene is easily absorbed by the phytylene and is a light flammable. The wide propagation of kerosene lamps, and after them and gas burners with galline grids led to the need for devices to protect the eyes from the blinding action of the hot parts of these lamps. As such devices, various disperses made of milk silicate glass, "lampshares", opaque reflectors and screens were used.

With distribution in XIX. kerosene lamps, more complex in their design, than all the lamps previously preceding them, as well as the development of the machine production machine, the lamp gradually became aware of not only as a decorative element of the interior, but also a household appliance.

The era of kerosene lighting has created a number of very stable structures. Electrical lamps until now use some of these structures, although not always justified from a constructive point of view. In kerosene luminaires there are complex nodes for lifting and lowering the lamp (candlestands dropped and rose with small winches). Kerosene lamps of the second half of the XIX. We were produced both in the form of simple and cheap machinery products and in the form of unique expensive products using art glass, porcelain and metallic casting.

A new method of production entailed the emergence of new materials and technologies, but he could not quickly create its own specific, inherent forms of products. The appearance of electrical lighting at the beginning of the 80s XIX. Made at the time of style chaos. Aspiration bourgeoisie The aristocratic respectableness of their home was revived antique Products and led to the revival in architecture and furniture of historical styles of different eras. However, intensive searches for new paths have already begun best artists and architects of that time, which led to the emergence of Modern style that was frankly decorative.

In the electrical luminaires of the end of the XIX century. It was immediately determined two directions: a constructive (light, technological form, devoid of any decor) and decorative (the use of common style forms of past eras and modern).

Lamps constructively simple and expressive forms produced many electrical firms of the United States, Germany, France. As a rule, these were lamps for local lighting of working areas, which have the possibility of regulating the direction of the luminous flux. The form of some of them was so interesting that their serial issues are currently resumed. Despite the fact that this step can be considered as an obvious stylization in the Spirit of "Retro", only a specialist can determine that the age of the prototype is already approaching the century.

Electric incandescent lamp allowed to create along with multi-faceted designs lamps with a closed structure, directly embedded in the ceiling or wall. The new source of light opened for artists and architects working in modern style, great opportunities for creating products of expressive decorative form. Modern, according to which architects sought to ensemble unity of the architecture of the building, its interiors and equipment, developed a complex system of stylized ornament based on the motives of the plant world. This ornament was often used in luminaires. As a characteristic example, the lamps created by the Russian architect at the turn of XXV can be brought. For a number of mansions in Moscow. These lamps are inextricably linked with the space and equipment of the interior, they seem to "grow" from fantastic interior forms. Their forms are characterized by the wealth of fantasy and a subtle taste.

And at the same time, modern artists are no longer trying to get away from the machine form, but they want to decorate this form to decorately.

By the 20th of the 20th century, when Modern has exhausted itself, the trends towards the simplification of the forms of products quickly apply throughout Europe. Lamps are reserved. Suspended lamps with plants abazhur , Lamps-bowls flat shapes, Cuboid Flashlights, wall-mounted lamps of simplified forms, table lamps on a thin central stand with a lamp lamp, devoid of any decorations - this is the main range of fixtures used at the time.

In the early 50s, luminescent lighting begins to enter the dwelling. The most effortful process takes place in Japan, where this type of light source as it is impossible to more organically suit the traditional national forms of lamps that have formed over the centuries. Currently, luminescent lighting dominates in Japanese housing.

In Europe, the first attempts to introduce fluorescent lighting were undertaken in the 40s, but its use in household luminaires was limited to significant sizes of tubular luminescent lamps that allowed them to use them only in ceiling lights.

The revolutionary breakthrough in this direction occurred in the late 70s - early 80s, when the mass production of compact fluorescent lamps was mastered, comparable in size with standard incandescent lamps.

And as always, the innovation begins with the use of old forms. The first luminescent lamps for residential premises repeat the structure and shape of lamps with incandescent lamps. Only later they acquire their specific forms.