"You can talk about the chemical death of a person, when the stock of mental energy is depleted.

You can talk about the resurrection, when mental energy begins to mind".

What is mental energy? - This is a vital energy that depends on the existence of a person. There is no mental energy (hereinafter referred to as PE) - there is no life, it comes to physical decomposition, illness and death. There is PE - there is life, full of creative lifting, health and happiness.

Synonyms PE: Grace, Prana, Chinese Energy Qi, Fire Hermes, Kundalini, Fire Languages \u200b\u200bof the Day of the Holy Trinity, Vrilly Litton, Free Energy of Killie, Fluid Mesmer, Od Rechhenbach, Live Fire Zoroistra, Sofia Ellinov, Sarasvati Hindus and many many others.

Signs of decline PE: Mental and physical fatigue, drowsiness, amorphousness of consciousness, and in heavy cases - nausea.

Signs of tide PE: joy and optimism, creative activity, the desire of achievements and fruitful activities.

Seven ways to preserve PE

1. Aura. Going out in the morning of the house, outset mentally around itself at a distance of an elbow elbow, the energy shell in the shape of a chicken egg so that your body is in the center of this auric egg. In this way, you will strengthen the protective network of your aura, which protects your PE from unwanted intrusions.

2. Vampires. Try to avoid communicating with people with an extinct and muddy, running look - these are energy vampires, after communication with which sharp fatigue comes. Man's glance is impossible to fake. Eyes are the surest indicator of the presence of PE in humans. Who does not have their own PE, he often becomes an energy vampire and tries (often unconsciously) to steal it with a simple approach to the donor aura.

3. Crowd. In public transport, or such a place of cluster of people, imperceptibly make a blitz-assessment nearby standing people. If someone from them caused you easy rejection, then go away from it to another place. When in contact with human AUR, your PE flows on the magnetic principle to another aura, and PE another aurahs flow into your, and there is no possibility to impede this energy exchange - this is a solid law.

4. Hands. In public places, try to avoid direct contact with bare hands with commonly used objects and things, such as door handles, handrails, handles of trading carts, etc. If possible, in the winter season, do not remove the gloves or buy thin, for example, like. If there is no possibility to avoid direct contact with bare hands, then find such a place that is the least used. Human hands emit strong PE streams. With each touch, a person saturates its own objects to which hand touched. Be careful to old, unfamiliar things. They can carry the charge of negative PE on themselves, from contact with which you will spend a lot of your PE on its neutralization.

5. Irritation. All ways avoid irritation, which can especially strain in public transport, in stores, with a dense motion on the road behind the wheel of the car, in home everyday, etc. Mental irritation generates negative PE, which destroys your positive PE.

6. Intimate. Drive a moderate intimate life, because the reproduction of the seed fluid requires a large flow rate of PE.

7. Animals. Do not hold the animal homes so that your PE does not break out to them. Animals, like everyone else, possess their aura with their PE, which is much lower in quality than PE person. With the contact of the Aur of a person and an animal, the same exchange of PE is the same exchange as between humans. Do not drink your aura of the lowest animal PE.

Seven PE enhancements

1. Air. Breathe more often natural, clean air. It is dissolved prana - solar PE. In the big millionnic cities, the air is not clean, so try or more often go to nature, or at all moves out of town or in a small town.

2. Cosmos. Unlimited universal expanses are filled with cosmic vital energy, which is akin to human PE. You just need to mentally call, pull it out from there. Look at the Starry Sky and imagine that it is the ocean of energy, touching which you can easily enhance your vital energy.

3. Friendliness. Be friendlier to all people around you. Do not wish no one evil, even enemies yours. A kindness and friendly attitude not only give rise to the radiation of positive PE in your aura, but also cause people the same response vibrations of their AUR. Friendly people exchange with other people positive PE just just because they cause the same positive PE in other people.

4. Heart. The main man of PE man is his heart. Listen to your heart, not the brain. The reasoning brain is often deceived in the correct valuation of the life situation and sometimes leads to a dead end. The heart is not deceived never and knows much more than the mind can imagine. Listen to your heart in silence and silence. It will tell you how to go along the trail of life so that at her end you could say that you lived a happy life.

6. Vegetables and fruits. Pint with raw vegetables and fruits - they are full of solar PE deposits. Try not to eat fried, because Wire oil highlights poisons that kill your PE. Do not eat meat, it is full of invisible energy of pathogens of decomposition fluids, which begins immediately after the death of the animal. Even the fresher meat is full of not only low animal PE, but also energy microbes, when eating which your body will spend a lot of PE to neutralize them. Bean cultures can easily replace meat products.

7. Sleep. Before bedtime, do not worry and even more so do not swear with your homework. Try not to watch negative and criminal TV shows that cause bad emotions. It is better to see a kind film, or read a good book, or listen to calm music. Before bedtime, take a shower to clean not only your body from sweat deposits, but it is much more important to wash off the energetic accumulation of the day. Clean water has a property to clean PE. Going to sleep in a clean body and a calm, peaceful spirit, your PE will rush into pure layers of space, where it will gain strengthening and nutrition. In the morning you will feel the vigor and the power adequately live the coming day.

This material is based on an article "Overview of the types of energy drives", previously published on http://khd2.narod.ru/gratis/accumul.htm, with the addition of several paragraphs from other sources, for example, http: // battery-info. RU / Alternatives.

One of the main problems of alternative energy is the uneven flow of its renewable sources. The sun shines only in the afternoon and in cloudless weather, the wind blows, and it subsides. Yes, and electricity needs are not constant, for example, on the lighting day it is required less, in the evening - more. And people like it, when at night the city and the villages are flooded with lights of illuminations. Well, or at least just the streets are lit. So the task arises - to maintain the energy obtained for a while to use when the need for it is maximum, and the receipt is not enough.

Gaes Taumsauk in the USA. Despite the small power known to the whole world due to the heart-shaped basin.

There are less large-scale hydraulic storage devices of gravitational energy. Initially, patch 10 tons of water from the underground tank (well) into the tank container. Then water from the capacity under the action of gravity flows back to the tank rotating a turbine with an electric generator. The service life of such a drive can be 20 years or more. Advantages: When using a wind turbine, the latter can directly drive the water pump movement, water from the tower can be used for other needs.

Unfortunately, the hydraulic systems are harder to maintain in due technical condition than solid states - primarily it concerns the tightness of the reservoirs and pipelines and the health of the shut-off and pumping equipment. And one more important condition - at the moments of the accumulation and use of energy, the working fluid (at least it is large enough) should be in a liquid aggregate state, and not to remain as ice or steam. But sometimes in such drives it is possible to obtain an additional gift energy, - say, when replenishing the upper tank with thaws or rainwaters.

Mechanical energy drives

Mechanical energy manifests itself when interacting, movement of individual bodies or their particles. It includes the kinetic energy of motion or body rotation, the energy of deformation during bending, stretching, twisting, compression of elastic bodies (springs).

Gyroscopic energy storage

Gyroscopic drive Ufimsev.

In gyroscopic drives, the energy is covered in the form of a kinetic energy of a rapidly rotating flywheel. Specific energy, sparkled on every kilogram of the flywheel weight, is much larger than the one that can be stock in a kilogram of static cargo, even raising it to a large height, and the latest high-tech developments promise the density of the accumulated energy comparable to the margin of chemical energy in a unit of mass of the most effective types of chemical Fuel. Another huge plus of the flywheel is the possibility of a quick recoil or reception of very high power, limited only by the limit of the strength of the materials in the case of mechanical transmission or "bandwidth" of electrical, pneumatic or hydraulic gear.

Unfortunately, the flywheels are sensitive to concussions and turns in planes other than the plane of rotation, because at the same time there are huge gyroscopic loads, seeking to drive the axis. In addition, the storage time of the accumulated flywheel energy is relatively small and for traditional structures is usually from a few seconds to several hours. Next, friction energy loss becomes too noticeable ... However, modern technologies allow you to drastically increase the storage time - up to several months.

Finally, another unpleasant moment - a stock-spinning energy directly depends on its rotational speed, therefore, as the speed of rotation changes, the speed changes all the time. At the same time, the load is very often a stable speed of rotation, not exceeding several thousand revolutions per minute. For this reason, purely mechanical energy transmission systems on the flywheel and back can be too complex in the manufacture. Sometimes to simplify the situation can electromechanical transmission using a motor generator placed on one shaft with a flywheel or a rigid gear associated with it. But then the energy loss is inevitable to heat the wires and windings that can be much higher than friction losses and slipping in good variators.

The so-called supermarkets consisting of steel ribbons, wire or high-strength synthetic fibers are especially promising. Naving can be dense, and may have a specially left empty space. In the latter case, as the flywheel, the ribbon turns are moved from its center to the periphery of rotation, changing the moment of the inertia of the flywheel, and if the spring tape, then the spare part of the energy in the energy of the elastic deformation of the spring. As a result, in such flywheels, the rotation speed is not so directly related to the accumulated energy and is much more stable than in the simplest solid structures, and their energy intensiveness is noticeably larger. In addition to more energy intensity, they are safer in case of various accidents, since, in contrast to the fragments of a large monolithic flywheel, in their energy and the destructive strength of comparable with cannon nuclei, the fragments of the spring have a much smaller "affecting ability" and usually quite effectively slow down the flywheel The scope of friction about the wall of the case. For the same reason, both modern solid-leaf flywheels, designed to work in modes close to the redistribution of material strength, are often manufactured not monolithic, but woven from cables or fibers impregnated with a binder.

Modern designs with a vacuum chamber of rotation and magnetic suspension of the kevlar fiber supermarker provide the density of the repaid energy of more than 5 MJ / kg, and can save the kinetic energy by weeks and months. According to optimistic estimates, the use of heavy-duty "supercarboon" fiber will increase the speed of rotation and the specific energy density of the energy to be increased many times - up to 2-3 GJ / kg (promise that one promotion of such a flywheel weighing 100-150 kg is enough for a run in Million kilometers or more, i.e. on actually for the entire life of the car!). However, the cost of this fiber is still many times higher than the cost of gold, so that such cars are not even affected by the Arabic Sheikham ... more about the flywheel drives can be read in the book Nurbia Gulia.

Giroresonance energy storage

These drives are the same flywheel, but made of elastic material (for example, rubber). As a result, it appears fundamentally new properties. As the revolutions are increasing at such a flywheel, "Growth" - "Petals" - first it turns into an ellipse, then in the "flower" with three, four and more "petals" ... while after the start of the formation of the "petals", the rotation speed of the flywheel It practically does not change, and energy is inhibited in the resonant wave of elastic deformation of the material of the flywheel forming these "petals".

Such structures in the late 1970s and early 1980s in Donetsk was engaged in N. Zharmash. The results obtained by them are impressive - according to its estimates, at the working speed of the flywheel, which is only 7-8 thousand rpm, the stored energy was enough to drive 1500 km against 30 km with the usual flywheel of the same size. Unfortunately, more recent information about this type of drives are unknown.

Mechanical drives using elasticity

This class of devices has a very large specific capacity of the poorest energy. If necessary, compliance with small dimensions (several centimeters) its energy intensity is the largest among mechanical drives. If the requirements for the mass-size characteristics are not so hard, then large ultra-speed flywheels are superior to its energy intensity, but they are much more sensitive to external factors and have a much smaller energy storage time.

Spring mechanical drives

Compression and springs straightening can provide a very large consumption and energy flow per unit of time - perhaps the largest mechanical power among all types of energy storage. As in the flywheels, it is limited only to the limit of fooling materials, but the springs usually implement the working translational movement directly, and in the flywheels without a rather complicated transmission can not do without mechanical combat springs, or gas springs are used, which are used in their pneumatic The essences are pre-charged pneumatic springs; before the appearance of firearms for the battle at the distance, it was also that spring weapons were also applied - onions and crossbows, and long before the new era fully supplanted the Rabbar with its kinetic energy accumulation).

The shelf life of the accumulated energy in a compressed spring can be for many years. However, it should be borne in mind that under the action of constant deformation, any material over time accumulates fatigue, and the crystal grille of the spring metal varies slowly, and the larger the internal stresses and the higher the ambient temperature, the sooner it will take place. Therefore, after a few decades, a compressed spring, without changing outwardly, it may be "discharged" in whole or in part. Nevertheless, high-quality steel springs, if they are not subjected to overheating or overcooling, are able to work for centuries without visible loss of tank. For example, vintage wall-mounted mechanical clocks from one full plant still go two weeks - as more than half a century ago, when they were made.

If it is necessary to gradually uniform "charging" and "discharge", the springs providing this mechanism may be very complex and capricious (look into the same mechanical clock - in fact, the set of gears and other parts serve exactly this purpose). It can simplify the situation can electromechanical transmission, but it usually imposes significant restrictions on the instantaneous power of such a device, and when working with low capacities (several watts and less), its efficiency is too low. A separate task is the accumulation of maximum energy in the minimum volume, since it occurs mechanical stresses close to the strength of the materials used, which requires particularly thorough calculations and impeccable quality of manufacture.

Speaking here about the springs, it is necessary to keep in mind not only metallic, but also other elastic solid elements. The most common among them are rubber harnesses. By the way, in energy stored per unit of mass, the rubber exceeds steel to dozens of times, but it serves about the same amount of times less, and, in contrast to steel, it loses its properties in a few years even without active use and at ideal external Conditions - by virtue of the rapid chemical aging and degradation of the material.

Gas mechanical drives

In this class of devices, the energy accumulates due to the elasticity of the compressed gas. With an excess of energy, the compressor pumps gas to the balloon. When it is required to use well-energy, compressed gas is supplied to the turbine directly performing the necessary mechanical work or a rotating electric generator. Instead of a turbine, you can use a piston engine, which is more effective with small capacities (by the way, there are also reversible piston compressor engines).

Almost every modern industrial compressor is equipped with a similar battery - receiver. True, the pressure there rarely exceeds 10 atm, and therefore the energy supply in such a receiver is not very big, but it usually allows you to increase the installation resource and save energy several times.

Gas, compressed to pressure in tens and hundreds of atmospheres, can provide a sufficiently high specific density of repaid energy for almost unlimited time (months, years, and with high quality of the receiver and shut-off reinforcement - dozens of years, - no wonder pneumatic weapons using sphaw can Gas, received such widespread). However, the compressor included in the installation with a turbine or piston engine, the devices are quite complex, capricious and having a very limited resource.

The promising technology for creating energy reserves is air compression due to the available energy at a time when the immediate need for the latter is missing. Compressed air is cooled and stored at a pressure of 60-70 atmospheres. If necessary, spending stored energy, the air is extracted from the drive, heats up, and then enters a special gas turbine, where the energy of compressed and heated air rotates the turbine steps, the shaft of which is connected to an electric generator output in power system.

For storage of compressed air, it is proposed, for example, to use suitable mining and specially created underground containers in hydrochloric rocks. The concept is not new, the storage of compressed air in the underground cave was patented back in 1948, and the first plant with a compressed air energy (CAES - Compressed Air Energy Storage) with a capacity of 290 MW operates at the Huntorf power station in Germany since 1978. At the stage of air compression, a large amount of energy is lost in the form of heat. This lost energy must be compensated by compressed air to the expansion stage in the gas turbine, and hydrocarbon fuel is used, with which the air temperature increases. This means that the installations have far from one hundred percent efficiency.

There is a promising direction for increasing the efficiency of CAES. It consists in holding and maintaining heat released during the operation of the compressor at the stage of compression and air cooling, followed by its re-use with reverse heating of cold air (so-called recovery). However, this option CAES has essential technical difficulties, especially in the direction of creating a system for long-term heat conservation. In case of solving these problems, AA-Caes (Advanced Adiabatic-CAES) can pave a path for large-scale energy storage systems, the problem was raised by researchers around the world.

Participants in the Canadian startup HydroStor Another unusual solution - pump energy into underwater bubbles.

The accumulation of thermal energy

In our climatic conditions, a very significant (often - basic) part of the energy consumed is spent on heating. Therefore, it would be very convenient to accumulate directly heat in the drive and then get it back. Unfortunately, in most cases, the density of repaid energy is very small, and its conservation time is very limited.

There are thermal batteries with solid or melting heat accumulating material; liquid; steam; thermochemical; with electric heating element. Thermal batteries can be connected to a system with a solid fuel boiler in a helose system or a combined system.

Energy accumulation due to heat capacity

In the drives of this type, heat accumulation is carried out due to the heat capacity of the substance that serves as a working fluid. A classic example of a thermal battery can serve as a Russian oven. She was pulled once a day and then she then heated the house during the day. Nowadays, under the thermal battery, it is most often meant to storing hot water storage contained with high thermal insulation properties.

There are heat accumulators and on the basis of solid coolants, for example, in ceramic bricks.

Different substances have a different heat capacity. In most it is in the range of 0.1 to 2 kJ / (kg · k). An abnormally large heat capacity has the water - its heat capacity in the liquid phase is approximately 4.2 kJ / (kg · k). A higher heat capacity has only a very exotic lithium - 4.4 kJ / (kg · k).

However, in addition to specific heat (by mass) must be taken into account and volume heat, allowing to determine how much heat is needed to change the temperature of the same volume of different substances to the same value. It is calculated from the usual specific (mass) heat capacity by multiplying it onto the specific density of the corresponding substance. The volume of the heat capacity should be focused when it is more important than the volume of the heatacumulator than its weight. For example, the specific heat capacity of the steel is only 0.46 kJ / (kg · k), but the density is 7800 kg / cubic meters, and, say, at polypropylene - 1.9 kJ / (kg · k) - 4 times more times more, but its density It is only 900 kg / cubic meters. Therefore, with the same volume Steel will be able to stock 2.1 times more heat than polypropylene, although it will be harder almost 9 times. However, due to the abnormally large heat capacity of water, no material can exceed it and by volume heat. However, the volume heat capacity of iron and its alloys (steel, cast iron) differs from water less than 20% - in one cubic meter they can stock more than 3.5 MJ heat for each degree temperature change, slightly smaller volume with copper - 3.48 MJ /(kub.musta). Air heat capacity under normal conditions is approximately 1 kJ / kg, or 1.3 kJ / cubic meters, so to heat the cubic meter by 1 °, it is sufficient to cool on the same degree just less than 1/3 liters of water (naturally, more hot than air ).

By virtue of the simplicity of the device (which may be easier a fixed solid piece of solid matter or a closed reservoir with a liquid heat carrier?) Such energy storage devices have a practically unlimited number of cycles of energy accumulation and a very long service life - for liquid coolants to dry the fluid or before damage to the tank From corrosion or other reasons, these restrictions are missing for hardness. But the storage time is very limited and, as a rule, ranges from several hours to several days - for a longer period, the usual thermal insulation to keep heat is no longer capable, and the specific energy density is small.

Finally, one more circumstance should be emphasized, - not only the heat capacity, but also thermal conductivity of the heat and accumulator substance is important for efficient work. With high thermal conductivity, even enough fast changes to the exterior conditions, the heat acupuncture will react to all its mass, and therefore all the recent energy - that is, as efficiently possible. In the case of poor thermal conductivity, only the surface part of the heat accumulator will have time to react, and short-term changes to the external conditions simply do not have time to reach, and a substantial part of the substance of such a heat accumulator will be actually excluded from work. The polypropylene mentioned in the considered slightly higher example has a thermal conductivity of almost 200 times less than steel, and therefore, despite the sufficiently large specific heat, the effective heat acceumator can not be. However, the technically problem is easily solved by the organization of special channels for circulating the coolant inside the heat accumulator, but it is obvious that such a solution complicates significantly complicates the design, reduces its reliability and energy intensity and will certainly require periodic maintenance, which is unlikely to be a monolithic piece of substance.

How it will not seem strange, sometimes it is necessary to accumulate and keep not warm, and cold. In the US, more than ten years have been operating companies that offer "batteries" based on ice for installation in air conditioners. At night, when electricity in excess and it is sold on reduced tariffs, air conditioning freezes water, that is, it goes into the refrigerator mode. In the daytime, it consumes several times less energy, working as a fan. The energy-free compressor is disconnected at this time. Read more.

Energy accumulation when changing the phase state of the substance

If you carefully look at the thermal parameters of various substances, it can be seen that when changing the aggregate state (melting-hardening, evaporation-condensation), there is a significant absorption or emission of energy. For most substances, thermal energy of such transformations are sufficient to change the temperature of the same amount of the same substance for many dozens, and even hundreds of degrees in those temperature ranges where its aggregate state does not change. But, as you know, while the aggregate condition of the entire volume of the substance becomes the same, its temperature is almost constant! Therefore, it would be very tempting to accumulate energy due to the change of the aggregate state - the energy accumulates a lot, and the temperature changes little, so that as a result, it is not necessary to solve problems associated with heating to high temperatures, and at the same time it is possible to obtain a good container of such a heat accelerator.

Melting and crystallization

Unfortunately, at present, there are practically no cheap, safe and decomposition-resistant substances with a large phase transition energy, the melting point of which was lying in the most relevant range - from about + 20 ° C to + 50 ° C (maximum + 70 ° C - It is still relatively safe and easily achieving temperature). As a rule, complex organic compounds are mounted in this temperature range, not useful for health and often rapidly oxidizing in air.

Perhaps the most suitable substances are paraffins, the melting point of most of which depending on the grade lies in the range of 40..65 ° C (though there are also "liquid" paraffins with a melting point of 27 ° C and less, as well as related paraffins natural oxide, The melting point of which lies within 58..100 ° C). And paraffins, and oxterite is quite safe and used including for medical purposes to directly warm up sick places on the body. However, with a good heat capacity, the thermal conductivity of them is quite small - it is so small that the paraffin or ozozerite, heated to 50-60 ° C, is only pleasantly hot, but not burning, as it would be with water heated to the same temperature, - For medicine, this is good, but for the heat accumulator it is unconditional minus. In addition, these substances are not so cheers, let's say, the wholesale price for ozocerite in September 2009 was about 200 rubles per kilogram, and the Paraffin kilograms cost from 25 rubles (technical) to 50 and higher (highly purified food, i.e. suitable for use when packing products). These are wholesale prices for parties in a few tons, retail is increasingly for at least one and a half.

As a result, the economic efficiency of the paraffin heat accumulator turns out to be under a big question - because kilograms-other paraffin or ozocerite is suitable only for medical warming of a marching loin for a couple of dozens of minutes, and to ensure a stable temperature of a more or less spacious dwelling for at least a day of paraffin heat accumulator It must be measured by tons, so its value immediately approaches the cost of a passenger car (though, the lower price segment)! Yes, and the phase transition temperature, ideally, must accurately match the comfortable range (20..25 ° C) - otherwise it will still have to organize some kind of heat transfer control system. However, the melting point in the area of \u200b\u200b50..54 ° C, characteristic of highly purified paraffins, in combination with high heat transition (a little more than 200 kg / kg), is very well suited for the heat accelerator, designed to provide hot water and water heating, The problem is only in low thermal conductivity and a high price of paraffin. But in the case of force majeure, paraffin itself can be used as a fuel with good calorific value (although it is not so easy to do - unlike gasoline or kerosene, liquid and especially hard paraffin in the air does not burn, be sure to need a wick or other device for Feeding the burning zone is not paraffin itself, but only his vapor)!

An example of a thermal energy storage based on the effect of melting and crystallization can serve as a heat-energy storage system based on silicon, which was developed by the Australian company Laent Heat Storage.

Evaporation and condensation

The heat of evaporation condensation, as a rule, is several times higher than the heat of melting-crystallization. And it seems that there are not so few substances evaporated in the desired temperature range. In addition to frankly poisonous servo carbon, acetone, ethyl ether, etc., there is ethyl alcohol (its relative safety is proved daily on the personal example with millions of alcoholics around the world!). Under normal conditions, the alcohol pins at 78 ° C, and its heat of evaporation is 2.5 times the heat of melting water (ice) and is equivalent to heating the same amount of liquid water by 200 °. However, in contrast to melting, when changes in the volume of the substance rarely exceed a few percent, during the evaporation of the couple occupies the entire volume provided by it. And if this volume is unlimited, the pairs will disappear, irrevocably carrying with them all the accumulated energy. In the closed volume, pressure will immediately begin to grow, preventing the evaporation of new portions of the working fluid, as it takes place in the most ordinary pressure cooker, therefore the change of the aggregate state is experiencing only a small percentage of the working substance, the rest continues to heat up, while in the liquid phase. It opens a large field of activity for inventors - the creation of an effective heat accumulator based on evaporation and condensation with a hermetically variable workshop.

Phase transitions of the second kind

In addition to phase transitions associated with changing the aggregate state, some substances and within a single aggregate state may have several different phase states. The change of such phase states is also also accompanied by a noticeable release or absorption of energy, although it is usually much less significant than with a change in the aggregate state of the substance. In addition, in many cases, with similar changes, in contrast to the change of the aggregate state, the temperature hysteresis occurs - the temperature of the direct and reverse phase transition can differ significantly, sometimes dozens and even hundreds of degrees.

Electrical energy storage

Electricity is the most convenient and universal form of energy in the modern world. It is not surprising that the drives of electrical energy develop most quickly. Unfortunately, in most cases, the specific capacity of low-cost devices is small, and devices with a high specific capacity are too expensive for storing large energy reserves with mass applications and very short-lived.

Condencators

The most massive "electric" energy drives are conventional radiotechnical capacitors. They have a huge speed of accumulation and impact of energy - as a rule, from several thousand to many billions of full cycles per second, and are able to work in a wide range of temperatures for many years, and even decades. Combining several capacitors in parallel, easily increase their total capacity to the desired value.

Capacitors can be divided into two large classes - non-polar (typically "dry", i.e. not containing liquid electrolyte) and polar (usually electrolytic). The use of liquid electrolyte provides a substantially qualified container, but almost always requires compliance with polarity when connected. In addition, electrolytic capacitors are often more sensitive to external conditions, primarily to the temperature and have a smaller service life (over time the electrolyte is destroyed and dries).

However, capacitors have two major flaws. First, it is a very small specific density of poisonable energy and therefore small (relative to other types of drives) Capacity. Secondly, this is a small storage time, which is usually calculated by moments and seconds and rarely exceeds several hours, and in some cases only small shares of the second. As a result, the scope of capacitors is limited by various electronic circuits and short-term accumulation, sufficient for straightening, correction and filtering current in the power electrical engineering - to more, they are not enough.

Which are sometimes called "supercapacitors", one can consider as a kind of intermediate link between electrolytic capacitors and electrochemical batteries. From the first they inherited a practically unlimited number of charge-discharge cycles, and from the second - relatively low charging currents and discharges (the full charge-discharge cycle can last a second, or even much longer). The containers are also in the range between the most capacitors and small batteries - usually the energy supply is from units to several hundred Jowle.

Additionally, it should be noted a sufficiently high sensitivity of ionistors to temperature and limited charge storage time - from several hours to several weeks maximum.

Electrochemical batteries

Electrochemical batteries were invented at the dawn of the development of electrical engineering, and now they can be found everywhere - from a mobile phone to aircraft and ships. Generally speaking, they work on the basis of some chemical reactions and therefore they could be attributed to the next section of our article - "Chemical Energy Changes". But since this moment is usually not emphasized, but draws attention to the fact that the batteries accumulate electricity, consider them here.

As a rule, if necessary, to store quite large energy - from several hundred kilodzhoules and more - lead-acid batteries (example - any car) are used. However, they have considerable dimensions and, most importantly, weight. If you need low weight and mobility of the device, then more modern types of batteries are used - nickel-cadmium, metal-hydride, lithium-ion, polymer-ion, etc. They have a much higher specific capacity, however, the specific cost of storing energy they have Noticeably above, so their use is usually limited to relatively small and economical devices, such as mobile phones, photo and video cameras, laptops, etc.

Recently, powerful lithium-ion batteries have begun on hybrid cars and electric vehicles. In addition to less weight and greater specific capacity, in contrast to lead acid, they allow us to practically fully use their nominal containers, are considered more reliable and having a larger service life, and their energy efficiency in a full cycle exceeds 90%, while the energy efficiency of lead Batteries during the charge of the last 20% of the tank can fall up to 50%.

According to the mode of use, electrochemical batteries (primarily powerful) are also divided into two large class - the so-called traction and starting. Usually, the starting battery can successfully work sufficiently as a traction (the main thing is to control the degree of discharge and do not bring it to such a depth, which is allowed for traction batteries), but when using too high load current, it can very quickly output a traction battery.

The disadvantages of electrochemical batteries include a very limited number of charge-discharge cycles (in most cases from 250 to 2000, and with non-compliance with manufacturers' recommendations - much less), and even in the absence of active operation, most types of batteries are degraded after several years, losing their consumer properties . At the same time, the service life of many types of batteries does not go from the beginning of their operation, but from the moment of manufacture. In addition, for electrochemical batteries, sensitivity to temperature, for a long time of charge, sometimes ten times greater than the discharge time, and the need to comply with the method of use (preventing a deep discharge for lead batteries and, on the contrary, compliance with the complete charge-discharge cycle for metal hydride and hydride and Many other types of batteries). The charge storage time is also quite limited - usually from week to year. Old batteries decrease not only capacity, but also storage time, and the other can be reduced many times.

Chemical energy storage

Chemical energy - This is the energy, "stored" in atoms of substances, which is released or absorbed in chemical reactions between substances. Chemical energy is either highlighted in the form of thermal when conducting exothermic reactions (for example, fuel burning), or is converted to electrical in electroplating elements and batteries. These sources of energy are characterized by a high efficiency (up to 98%), but low container.

Chemical energy storage devices allow you to receive energy both in the form of which it has been intensified and in any other. You can allocate "fuel" and "illegal" varieties. Unlike low-temperature thermochemical drives (a little later), which can stock energy, simply being placed in a fairly warm place, do not do without special technologies and high-tech equipment, sometimes very cumbersome. In particular, if, in the case of low-temperature thermochemical reactions, the reagent mixture is usually not divided and is always in the same tank, the reagents for high-temperature reactions are stored separately from each other and are connected only when you need to get energy.

Energy accumulation of fuel

At the energy accumulation phase, a chemical reaction occurs, as a result of which the fuel is restored, for example, hydrogen is released - direct electrolysis, in electrochemical cells using a catalyst or using thermal decomposition, say, electric arc or highly concentrated sunlight. The "released" oxidizing agent can be assembled separately (for oxygen it is necessary in the conditions of a closed isolated object - under water or in space) or as unrequisitely "is", because at the time of use of the fuel of this oxidant, it will be quite enough in the environment and there is no need to spend place and funds for its organized storage.

At the stage of energy extraction, the accumulated fuel is oxidized with the release of energy directly in the desired form, regardless of how this fuel was obtained. For example, hydrogen can give immediately heat (when burning in the burner), mechanical energy (when it is applied as fuel to an internal combustion engine or turbine) or electricity (when oxidizing in the fuel cell). As a rule, such oxidation reactions require additional initiation (ignition), which is very convenient to control the process of energy extraction.

Energy accumulation with thermochemical reactions

A long group of chemical reactions has long and widely known, which in a closed vessel, when heated, go in one direction with the absorption of energy, and when cooling, in the reverse with the release of energy. Such reactions are often called thermochemical. The energy efficiency of such reactions is usually less than when changing the aggregate state of the substance, but also very noticeable.

Such thermochemical reactions can be considered as a kind of change of phase state of the mixture of reagents, and the problems here arise about the same - it is difficult to find cheap, safe and efficient mixture of substances that successfully acting in a similar way in the temperature range from + 20 ° C to + 70 ° C. However, one such composition is known for a long time - it is Glauberova Salt.

Mirabilite (he is also Glauberova Salt, he is the same sodium sodium sulfate Na 2 SO 4 · 10H 2 O) is obtained as a result of elementary chemical reactions (for example, when adding a cook salt in sulfuric acid) or mined in "finished form" as a mineral resource.

From the point of view of heat accumulation, the most interesting feature of the Miracycite is that with an increase in temperature above 32 ° C, the associated water begins to be released, and it looks like "melting" crystals that dissolve in the same water. When the temperature decreases to 32 ° C, the free water is again binding to the structure of the crystallohydrate - crystallization occurs. But the most important is the heat of this reaction of hydration-dehydration is very large and is 251 kJ / kg, which is noticeably above the heat of "honest" melting-crystallization of paraffins, albeit by a third less than the warmth of ice melting (water).

Thus, a heat-cumulator based on a saturated solution of mirable (saturated at temperatures above 32 ° C) can effectively maintain a temperature of 32 ° C with a large accumulation resource or energy rate. Of course, for a full hot water supply, this temperature is too low (shower with this temperature at best is perceived as "very cool"), but for heating the air of such a temperature may be quite enough.

Learn more about the heat acceumator based on Mirabite, you can read on the website "DeLaysam.ru".

Decisible chemical energy accumulation

Coffee bank with warming up due to lime quenching.

In this case, at the stage of "Charging" from some chemicals, others are formed, and in the course of this process, energy is intensified in the resulting new chemical bonds (let's say, extinguished lime with heating is translated into a negro condition).

With "discharge", a reverse reaction occurs, accompanied by the release of the previously stored energy (usually in the form of heat, sometimes additionally in the form of a gas that can be submitted to the turbine) - in particular, it is precisely when the "quenching" of lime with water. Unlike fuel methods, it is usually enough to start the reaction to be easily connected to each other - the additional initiation of the process (approach) is not required.

In fact, this type of thermochemical reaction, however, in contrast to the low-temperature reactions described in the consideration of thermal energy storage devices and do not require any special conditions, here we are talking about temperatures in many hundreds, or even thousands of degrees. As a result, the amount of energy stored in each kilogram of the working substance is significantly increasing, but the equipment is many times more complicated, more comprehensive and more expensive than empty plastic bottles or a simple tank for reagents.

The need to consume an additional substance - say, water to clean the lime - is not a significant disadvantage (if necessary, it is possible to collect water that is released during the transition of lime into a negro condition). But the special conditions for the storage of this negascinary lime, the violation of which is fraught not only by chemical burns, but also the explosion, these and it has similar ways in the category of those who are unlikely to be wide.

Other types of energy storage

In addition to those described above, there are other types of energy storage. However, they are currently very limited on the density of the energy of the energy and the time of its storage at a high accurate value. Therefore, while they are more applied to entertainment, and their exploitation is not considered any serious purposes. An example is phosphorecating paints, stocking energy from a bright light source and then glowing within a few seconds, and even long minutes. Their modern modifications have long contained a poisonous phosphorus and are quite safe even for use in children's toys.

Super conductive magnetic energy storage storage stored it in a large magnetic constant-current magnetic coil. It can be converted to an alternating electric current as needed. Low-temperature drives are cooled with liquid helium and are available for industrial enterprises. High-temperature storage devices cooled by liquid hydrogen are still under development and can be accessible in the future.

Super conductive magnetic energy drives have significant dimensions and are usually used for short periods of time, for example, during switching.

Most likely, this article reflects not all possible ways of accumulation and energy conservation. You can report other options either in the comments or email to KOS AT Altenergiya Dot RU.

How exactly the energy is stored in ATF (adenosine trophosphate), and how is it given to make some useful work? It seems incredibly difficult that some abstract energy suddenly receives a material carrier in the form of a molecule inside the living cells, and that it can be released not in the form of heat (which is more or less clear), but in the form of creating a different molecule. Usually the authors of the textbooks are limited by the phrase "energy is intensified in the form of a high-energy connection between parts of the molecule, and is given to the break of this connection, making useful work," but this does not explain anything.

In the most general features, these manipulations with molecules and energy occur as follows: first. Or are created in chloroplasts in a chain of similar reactions. This is spent on the energy obtained with the controlled combustion of nutrients directly inside the mitochondria or the energy of photons of sunlight falling on the chlorophyll molecule. Then ATP is delivered to those cells of the cell, where it is necessary to make some kind of work. And when removing one or two phosphate groups from it, the energy is highlighted that this work and performs. ATP at the same time disintegrates into two molecules: if only one phosphate group has been filmed, then the ATF turns into Adf (adenosine-phosphate, differing from adenosine trifosphate only the absence of the most separated phosphate group). If ATP gave two phosphate groups at once, then the energy is released more, and the adenosine monophosphate remains from ATP ( AMF).

Obviously, the cell must also be carried out inverse process, turning the ADF or AMP molecules in ATP to repeat the cycle. But these molecules are "blanks" can quietly swim next to the missing phosphates missing to ATP in ATP, and never to unite with them, because such a union reaction is energetically unprofitable.

What is the "energy benefit" of a chemical reaction, understand quite simple, if you know about the second law of thermodynamics: In the universe or in any system, isolated from the rest, the mess can only increase. That is, the complex organized molecules sitting in a cinne order, in accordance with this law, can only collapse, forming smaller molecules or even decaying into individual atoms, because then the order will be noticeably less. To understand this thought, you can compare a complex molecule with the collected from the airstorm. Then minor molecules for which complex disintegrates will be associated with individual parts of this aircraft, and atoms with separate LEGO cubes. Looking at a neatly collected aircraft and comparing it with a random bunch of parts, it becomes clear why the complex molecules contain more than a small one.

Such a decay reaction (molecules, not aircraft) will be energetically advantageous, which means it can be carried out spontaneously, and energy will be released during decay. Although actually the splitting of the aircraft will be energetically profitable: despite the fact that the details themselves will not be split off from each other and they will have to get out of their sidelines in the form of a boys who wants to use these details for something else, he Consuts on the transformation of the aircraft into a chaotic bunch of parts of the energy obtained from eating highly ordered food. And the more dense the parts were set, the more energy would be spent, including allocated in the form of heat. The result: a piece of buns (source of energy) and the plane turned into an erratic mass, the air molecules around the child were heated (and therefore moving more randomly) - the chaos became greater, that is, the splitting of the aircraft is energetically profitable.

Summing up, you can formulate such rules following the second law of thermodynamics:

1. With a decrease in the number of order, the energy is allocated, energy-beneficial reactions occur.

2. With an increase in the amount of order, the energy is absorbed, energy-cost reactions occur.

At first glance, such an inevitable movement from order to chaos makes it impossible inverse processes, such as constructing from one fertilized egg and nutrient molecules absorbed by the mother-cow, is undoubtedly very ordered compared to the calf over-cheated grass.

But still this happens, and the reason for this is that living organisms have one chip, allowing and maintaining the desire of the universe to entropy, and build themselves and their offspring: they two reactions are combined into one process, one of which is energetically beneficial, and the other energy consumption. Such combination of two reactions can be achieved that the energy that is allocated during the first reaction is overlapped with an excess of the second energy costs. In the example with an aircraft, its separation of energy-efficiently taken, and without a third-party source of energy in the form of a bun-destroyed metabolism, the aircraft would stand forever.

It is like when riding a slide on sledding: First, the person takes the energy during the absorption of food, resulting from energetically favorable processes of cleavage of a highly ordered chicken on molecules and atoms in its body. And then spends this energy, draining the sledges on the mountain. The movement of the skew from the foot to the top is energetically unprofitable, so they will never quit spontaneously there, it needs some third-party energy. And if the energies received from the eating chicken will not be enough to overcome the lifting, then there will be no "rolling on sledding on sledding from the top of the mountain".

It is energy-consuming reactions ( eNERGY-CONSUMING REACTION ) Increase the amount of order by absorbing the energy separated by a conjugate reaction. And the balance between the release and consumption of energy in these conjugate reactions should always be positive, that is, their totality will increase the number of chaos. An example increase entropy (disorder) ( entropy. ['ENTRə Pɪ]) is the release of heat at an energy reaction ( eNERGY SUPPLY REACTION): Neighboring particles of substances that have entered into the reaction are made of vigorous shocks from reacting, they begin to move faster and chaotic, hacking in turn other molecules and atoms of this and adjacent substances.

Let's go back to getting energy from food: a piece of Banoffee Pie is much more ordered than the resulting chewing mass that fell into the stomach. Which in turn consists of large, more ordered molecules than those on which its intestinal split. And they, in turn, will be delivered to the cells of the body, where there are already separate atoms and even electrons from them ... and at each stage of the increasing chaos in a separate piece of cake will be released the energy, which the organs and organelles of the happy dieder are trapped in The form of ATP (energy-cost), putting on the construction of new necessary molecules (energy-cost) or on the heating of the body (energy consuming too). In the system "Man - Banoffee Pie - the Universe" of the order as a result of this, it became less (due to the destruction of the Keik and the release of heat energy by processing it with organelles), but in a separate human body, the happiness of the order became greater (due to the occurrence of new molecules, parts of the organelle and whole cellular organs).

If you return to the ATP molecule, after all this thermodynamic retreat it becomes clear that it is necessary to spend energy obtained from energetically beneficial reactions to create it from components (smaller molecules). One way to create it is described in detail, the other (very similar) is used in chloroplasts, where instead of the energy of the proton gradient, photon energy emitted by the Sun is used.

Three groups of reactions can be distinguished, as a result of which ATP is produced (see the circuit on the right):

• the cleavage of glucose and fatty acids on large molecules in the cytoplasm already allows you to obtain a certain amount of ATP (small one, on one glucose molecule on this stage, only 2 obtained ATP molecules are accounted for. But the main purpose of this phase is to create molecules used in the respiratory chain of mitochondria.
• further splitting of molecules obtained at the previous stage in the Krex cycle flowing into mitochondrial matrix gives only one ATP molecule, its main goal is the same as in the past paragraph.
• finally, the molecules accumulated in the previous stages are used in the mitochondrial respiratory chain for the production of ATP, and here it stands out a lot (about it below below).

If you describe all this more deployed, looking at the same reactions from the point of view of the production and cost of energy, it turns out that:

0. Food molecules are neatly burned (oxidized) in the primary splitting occurring in the cytoplasm of the cell, as well as in the chain of chemical reactions under the name "Crec cycle", which occurs in the Mitochondria matrix - energy Part of the preparatory stage.

As a result of the conjugation with these energy-beneficial reactions of other, already energetically unprofitable reactions of creating new molecules, 2 ATP molecules and several molecules of other substances are formed - energy-cost Part of the preparatory stage. These in the way the resulting molecules are carriers of high-energy electrons that will be used in the mitochondrial respiratory chain at the next stage.

1. On the membranes of mitochondria, bacteria and some arches there is an energy flipping of protons and electrons from molecules obtained in the previous stage (but not from ATP). The passage of electrons according to the complexes of the respiratory chain (I, III and IV in the layout of the left) is shown by yellow winding arrows, passing through these complexes (and hence, through the inner membrane of mitochondria) protons - red arrows.

Why can electrons simply patch from the carrier molecule using a powerful oxidizing agent-oxygen and use the released energy? Why pass them from one complex to another, because in the end, they are also oxygen and come? It turns out that the more difference in the ability to attract electrons in the electron in the electron ( restorator) and electron-proof ( oxidizer) Molecules involved in the electron transmission reaction, the greater the energy is released at this reaction.

The difference in such an ability of molecules of electrons and oxygen in the Krebs cycle is such that it would be enough for the synthesis of several ATP molecules. But due to such a sharp drop in the energy of the system, this reaction would flow with an almost explosive power, and almost all the energy would be distinguished in the form of unwrapped heat, that is, actually lost.

Live cells share this reaction into several small stages, first transmitting electrons from weakly attracting carrier molecules to a little stronger than the attractive first complex in the respiratory chain, which is still a little more stronger than attracting ubiquinonon(or coenzyme Q-10) whose task is to drag the electrons to the next, a little more stronger than the attractive respiratory complex, which receives its part of the energy from this failed explosion, put it on pumping protons through the membrane .. and so until the electrons finally meet with oxygen, Attaching him, taking a steam of protons, and do not form a water molecule. Such a division of one powerful reaction to small steps allows almost half of the useful energy to make useful work: in this case, proton electrochemical gradientwhich will be discussed in the second paragraph.

How exactly the energy of the transmitted electrons helps the conjugate energy consumption reaction of pumping protons through the membrane, now just begin to find out. Most likely, the presence of an electrically charged particle (electron) affects the configuration of the place in the protein built into the membrane, where it is: so that this change provokes a proton tightening into protein and its movement through the protein channel in the membrane. It is important that actually the energy obtained as a result of the cleavage of high-energy electrons from the carrier molecule and the total transmission of their oxygen, is in the form of a proton gradient.

2. The energy of protons accumulated as a result of events from paragraph 1 from the outside of the membrane and seeking to get on the inner side consists of two unidirectional forces:

• electric (The positive charge of Protons seeks to go to place of accumulation of negative charges on the other side of the membrane) and
• chemical (as in the case of any other substances, protons are trying to evenly dispel in space, spreading out of places with their high concentration in places where there are few of them)

The electrical attraction of protons to the negatively charged side of the inner membrane is much more powerful by the resulting due to the difference in the proton concentrations of their desire to go to a place with a smaller concentration (this is indicated by the arrow width in the circuit at the top). The joint energy of these injections is so large that it is enough for the movement of protons inside the membrane, and to feed the concomitant energy-consuming reaction: the creation of ATP from ADF and phosphate.

Consider in more detail why energy is needed, and exactly the energies of the protons are converted into the energy of the chemical bond between the two parts of the ATP molecule.

The ADP molecule (on the scheme on the right) does not crave to acquire another phosphate group: the oxygen atom to which this group can attach, is also charged negatively, as well as phosphate, which means they are mutually repelled. And in general, the ADP is not going to join the reaction, it is chemically passive. In phosphate, in turn, to that atom of phosphorus, which could be the molecule of phosphate and ADP, when creating an ATP molecule, its own oxygen atom is attached, so it cannot manifest initiatives.

Therefore, these molecules must be associated with one enzyme, to deploy them so that the bonds between them and the "extra" atoms weakened and born, and then tested the two chemically active end of these molecules, at which atoms lack and excess electrons to each other.

The phosphorus (P +) and oxygen (O -) binding to the mutual reach of the ions of phosphorus (P +) and oxygen (O -) are associated with a strong covalent bond due to the fact that they are shared by one electron, originally belonged to oxygen. This processing molecules of the enzyme is ATP-Syntasis, and energy to change and its configuration, and the relative position of the ADP and phosphate, it receives from the protons passing through it. Protons energetically benefit from the oppositely charged side of the membrane, where they are not enough, and the only path passes through the enzyme, the "rotor" of which protons are passing along the way.

The structure of ATP synthase is shown in the Scheme on the right. Its rotating due to the passage of protons element is isolated with purple color, and on the moving picture below shows the scheme of its rotation and the creation of ATP molecules. The enzyme works practically as a molecular motor, turning electrochemicalproton current energy in mechanical energy The friction of the two sets of proteins is about each other: the rotating "leg" rubs about the fixed proteins "Hats of the Mushroom", while the subunits "Hats" change their shape. This mechanical deformation turns into energy of chemical connections In the synthesis of ATP, when the ADP and phosphate molecules are processed and unfolds needed to form a covalent bond between them.

Each ATP-synthase is able to synthesize up to 100 ATP molecules per second, and for each synthesized ATP molecule through the synthetus should pass about three protons. Most of the ATPs synthesized in cells is formed by this way, and only a small part is the result of the primary processing of food molecules occurring outside the mitochondria.

At any time, about a billion ATP molecules are located at a typical living cage. In many cells, all this ATP is replaced (i.e. used and created again) every 1-2 minutes. The middle man in a state of rest uses every 24 hours a mass ATP, approximately equal to its own mass.

In general, almost half of the energy, released during the oxidation of glucose or fatty acids to carbon dioxide and water, is tracked and is used to flow an ATF and phosphate formation of an ATF and phosphates. The efficiency of 50% is very good, for example, the car engine allows only 20% of the energy contained in fuel. At the same time, the rest of the energy in both cases is dissipated in the form of heat, and as well as some cars, animals are constantly spending this excess (although not completely, of course) for warming the body. In the process of the reactions mentioned here, one molecule of glucose, gradually splitted to carbon dioxide and water, supplies a cell of 30 ATP molecules.

So, with the fact that the energy comes from and how exactly it is stamped into ATP, everything is more or less understandable. It remains to understand how exactly stare energy is given and what happens At the molecular atomic level.

Educated covalent bond between ADP and phosphate is called high-energy For two reasons:

• with its destruction, a lot of energy is distinguished
• electrons involved in the creation of this connection (that is, rotating around oxygen and phosphorus atoms, between which this connection is formed) highly energy, that is, they are at the "high" orbits around atomic cores. And it would be energetically advantageously to jump on the level of lower, highlighting excess energy, but for now they are in this place, fastening oxygen and phosphorus atoms, "jump" will not work.

This is the desire of electrons to fall on a more convenient low-energy orbit ensures the ease of destruction of high-energy communication, and allocated in the form of a photon (which is a carrier of electromagnetic interaction) energy. Depending on which molecules will be substituted with enzymes to the destroying ATP molecule, which particular molecule will absorb the photon emitted by the electron, there can be different events. But every time energy stored in the form of high-energy communication will be used for some cell needs:

Scenario 1: Phosphate can be transferred to a molecule of another substance. In this case, high-energy electrons form a new bond, already between phosphate and an extreme atom of this recipient molecule. The condition of the flow of such a reaction is its energy benefit: in this new connection, the electron must have a slightly smaller energy than when it was part of the ATP molecule, eating a part of the energy in the form of a photon.

The purpose of such a reaction is to activate the recrapient molecule (it is indicated on the on-left scheme IN-One): before the addition of phosphate, it was passive and could not join the reaction with another passive molecule BUTBut now it is the owner of the energy reserve in the form of a high-energy electron, which means it can spend it somewhere. For example, to join the molecule BUTwhich without such a finta ears (that is, the high energy of the binder electron) is impossible to attach. Phosphate is disconnected by doing its job.

Such a chain of reactions is obtained:

1. ATF + Passive molecule IN ➡️ Adf + active due to the attached phosphate molecule B-R.

2. Activated molecule B-R. + Passive molecule BUT ➡️ Founded Molecules A-B. + Flashing phosphate ( R)

Both of these reactions are energetically beneficial: in each of them a high-energy binder electron is involved, which, in the destruction of one connection and the construction, another loses part of its energy in the form of photon emission. As a result of these reactions, two passive molecules were connected. If we consider the reaction of the compound of these molecules directly (passive molecule IN+ Passive molecule BUT ➡️ Founded Molecules A-B.), it turns out to be energetically costly, and can not be done. Cells "make it impossible", mating this reaction with an energy-beneficial response of ATP splitting on ADF and phosphate during the commission of the two reactions that are described above. The cleavage occurs in two stages, on each of which part of the energy of the binder electron is spent on the performance of useful work, namely, to create the necessary connections between two molecules, of which the third one turns out ( A-B.), necessary for the functioning of the cell.

Scenario 2: Phosphate can be clenched at one time from ATP molecule, and the released energy is captured by the enzyme or working protein and is spent on the performance of useful work.

How can you catch something so imperceptible as an insignificant perturbation of the electromagnetic field at the time of the electron drop at a lower orbit? Very simple: with the help of other electrons and with atoms that can absorb the photon emitted with the electron.

Atoms that make up the molecules are fastened into the durable chains and rings due to (such a chain is a non-switched protein in the picture on the right). And the individual parts of these molecules are attracted to each other with more weak electromagnetic interactions (for example, hydrogen bonds or van der Waals), which allows them to sprinkle into complex structures. Some of these atom configurations are very stable, and their indignation of the electromagnetic field will not bend them .. not shakes .. in general, they are stable. And some are quite mobile, and a sufficiently light electromagnetic pink so that they change their configuration (usually it is not covalent bonds). And it is such a kick that gives them the most faithful photon-carrier of the electromagnetic field, emitted by the electron moving to a lower orbit when disconnecting phosphate.

Changes in the configuration of proteins as a result of splitting ATP molecules are responsible for the most amazing events occurring in the cell. Surely those who are interested in cellular processes at least at the level of "see their animation on YouTube" stumbled on the video showing the protein molecule kinesin, in the literal sense, the word walking, rearrangement of the legs, along the cells of the cell skeleton, dragging the load attached to it.

It is the cleavage of phosphate from ATP that provides this walking, and here:

Kinesin ( kinesin. ) refers to a special type of proteins that are characteristic of spontaneously change their conformation(Mutual position of atoms in the molecule). Left alone, he turns randomly from conformation 1, in which it is attached to one "foot" to the actin filament ( actin Filament.) - the thinnest thread forming cytoskeleton Cells ( cytoskeleton. ), In conformation 2, thus making a step forward and standing on two "legs". From the conformation 2, it will be equal to probability as in conformation 3 (sticks back to the front), and back to the conformation 1. Therefore, the movement of the kinesin in any direction does not occur, it simply shamelessly flaps.

But everything changes, it stands to connect to him with the ATP molecule. As shown in the layer on the left, the attachment of ATP to the kinesine in conformation 1 leads to a change in its spatial position and it goes into conformation 2. The reason for this is the mutual electromagnetic effect of ATP molecules and kinesin on each other. This reaction is reversible, because there was no energy spent, and if ATP is disconnected from kinesin, it will simply raise the "foot", remaining in place, and will wait for the next ATP molecule.

But if it derses, then due to the mutual attraction of these molecules, the connection that holds phosphate within ATP is destroyed. The separated energy, as well as the decay of ATP on two molecules (which otherwise affect their electromagnetic fields to the kinesin atoms) lead to the fact that the conformation of kinesin changes: it "pulls back the back leg." It remains to take a step forward, which happens when disconnecting the ADP and phosphate returning the kinesin to the original conformation 1.

As a result of hydrolysis ATP, Kinesin moved to the right, and as soon as the next molecule joins it, it will make another couple of steps, using energy stored in it.

It is important that kinesin, located in conformation 3 with attached ADP and phosphate, cannot return to the conformation 2, making a "step back". This is explained by the same principle of compliance with the second law of thermoregulation: the transition of the "Kinesin + ATP" system from conformation 2 to conformation 3 is accompanied by the release of energy, which means the reverse transition will be energy-intensive. So that it happens, you need to get an energy of the ADF with phosphate from somewhere, and it is nowhere to take it in this situation. Therefore, the route connected to ATP is opened only one way, which allows you to make a useful work on dragging something from one end of the cell to another. Kinesin, for example, participates in the population of a chromosome of the dividing cell when mitoz (The process of dividing eukaryotic cells). And Muscular Protein mozin. Run along the actin filaments, causing abbreviations of the muscle.

This movement is very fast: some motor (responsible for various forms of cell mobility) proteins involved in gene replication, rushing along the DNA chain at a speed of thousands of nucleotides per second.

They all move at the expense hydrolysis ATP (the destruction of the molecule with the addition to the resulting decay to smaller molecules of atoms taken from the water molecule. Hydrolysis is shown on the right side of the ATP and ADF interconversion scheme). Or due to hydrolysis Gtf, differing from ATP only in that its composition includes another nucleotide (guanine).

Scenario 3.: Decoration from ATP or other similar molecule containing a nucleotide, at once two phosphate groups immediately leads to even greater energy emission than when only one phosphate is cleaved. Such a powerful emission allows you to create a durable sucrosephosphate oscope of DNA molecules and RNA:

1. In order for nucleotides to join the DNA or RNA circuit under construction, they need to be activated by attaching two phosphate molecules. This is an energy-consuming reaction performed by cell enzymes.

2. The enzyme of the DNA or RNA polymerase (on the diagram at the bottom is not shown) attaches an activated nucleotide (the scheme shows the GTF) to the polynucleotide under construction and catalyzes the cleavage of two phosphate groups. The separated energy is used to create a connection between the phosphate group of one nucleotide and the ribose of the other. Created as a result of communication are not high-energy, and therefore it is not easy to destroy them, which is an advantage for constructing a molecule containing hereditary cell information or transmitting it.

In nature, the spontaneous course of only energy favorable reactions is possible, which is due to the second law of thermodynamics

Nevertheless, living cells can combine two reactions, one of which gives a little more energy than the second absorbs, and thus exercise energy-consuming reactions. Energy-consuming reactions are directed to the creation of larger molecules, cellular organel and integer cells, tissues, organs and multicellular living beings, as well as on the energy of energy for their metabolism.

Energy supply is carried out due to the controlled and gradual destruction of organic molecules (energy process) conjugate with the creation of energy molecules (energy-consuming process). Photosynthetic organisms soaring the energy of solar photons captured by chlorophyll

Energy molecules are divided into two groups: storing energy in the form of high-energy or in the form of an attached high-energy electron. However, in the first group, high energy is provided with the same high-energy electron, so it can be said that the energy is reserved in the high levels of electrons located in different molecules

Energy stored in this way is given as in two ways: the destruction of high-energy communication or the transfer of high-energy electrons to gradually reduce their energy. In both cases, the energy is released in the form of emission moving to a lower energy level by the electron-carrier particle of the electromagnetic field (photon) and heat. This photon is captured in such a way that useful work (the formation of the molecule is required for metabolism in the first case and pumping protons through the Mitochondria membrane in the second)

Energy stored in the form of proton gradient is used to synthesize ATP, as well as for other cell processes that remained beyond this chapter (I think no one is offended, given its size). And the synthesized ATP is used as described in the previous paragraph.

Milk acid (accumulating in muscles can cause pain) is delivered by blood into the liver, where in the process of gluconeogenesis turns into glucose.

Alcohol forms in yeast cells with alcohol fermentation.

acetyl-CoA is used on the synthesis of GWC, ketone bodies, cholesterol, etc. or oxidized in the Krebs cycle.

Water and carbon dioxide are included in the overall metabolism or are derived from the body.

Pentoses are used on nucleic acid synthesis, glucose (glucongenesis) and other substances.

PREDPNUE in the synthesis of substances of LFS, purine bases, etc. or used to form energy in the CPE.

• Energy is intensified as ATP, which is then used in the body for the synthesis of substances, heat isolation, muscle contractions, etc.

Transforming glucose in the body is quite complex processes that flow under the action of various enzymes. So the path from glucose to lactic acid includes 11 chemical reactions, each of which is accelerated by its enzyme.

Scheme number 8. Anaerobic glycolysis.

Glucose

Adf Hexokinas, Iong

Glucose-6 phosphate

Phosphoglucoisomeraza

Fructose-6-phosphate

Adf phosphofrukinase, MG ions

Fructose-1,6-diphosphate

Aldlaza

3-phosphodioxyacetone 3-phosphoglisseroaldehyde (3-FGA)

Nadn + H 3-FGA-dehydrogenase

1,3-dithosphoglycerin acid

ATP phosphoglyceratmutasa

2-phosphoglycerin acid

H2O Enhaza

Phosphoenolpirogradic acid

ATP Piruvatakenaz, MG ions

Pivorogradic acid PVK.

Over lactate dehydrogenase

Lactic acid.

Glycoliz flows in cytoplasm cells and does not need a mitochondrial respiratory chain.

Glucose is one of the main sources of cell energy of all organs and tissues, especially the nervous system, erythrocytes, kidneys and seeds.

The brain is provided almost completely due to diffuse enclosing glucose, because GWK in brain cells do not penetrate. Therefore, with a decrease in the glucose concentration in the blood, the functioning of the brain is broken.

Glukegenesis.

In the anaerobic conditions of glucose is the only source of energy for the operation of skeletal muscles. Milk acid formed from glucose is then entered into the blood, into the liver, where it turns into glucose, which is then returned to the muscles (Corey cycle).

The process of transformation of non-reliable substances in glucose is called glukegenesis.

The biological value of gluconeogenesis is as follows:

Maintaining glucose concentration at a sufficient level with a lack of carbohydrates in the body, for example, with starvation or diabetes mellitus.

The formation of glucose from lactic acid, peyrogradic acid, glycerol, glycogenic amino acids, most of the intermediate metabolites of the Krebs cycle.

Gloundogenesis proceeds mainly in the liver and cortical substance of the kidneys. In the muscles, this process does not proceed due to the lack of necessary enzymes.

Total gluconeogenesis reaction:

2 PVK + 4ATF + 2GTF + 2NANDN + N + 4N2O

glucose + 2NV + 4ADF + 2GDF + 6N3RO44

Thus, in the process of gluconeogenesis on each glucose molecule, up to 6 macroergic compounds and 2nadn + N.

Consumption of large quantities of alcohol inhibits glukegenesis, which can affect the decrease in the brain functions. The glukegenesis rate may increase in the following states:

With starvation.

Enhanced protein nutrition.

Disadvantage of carbohydrates in food.

Diabetes mellitus.

Glucous glucose exchange path.

This path is minor in quantitative terms, but very important for the function of neutralization: the final products of metabolism and alien substances, binding to the active form of glucuronic acid (UDF glucroy acid) in the form of glucuronides, are easily derived from the body. The glucuronic acid itself is an integral part of glycosaminglecomers: hyaluronic acid, heparin, etc. In humans, as a result of this, the decay of glucose is formed by UDF glucuronic acid.

Energy exchange - This is a phase decay of complex organic compounds, which flows with the release of energy, which is inhibited in the macroeergic bonds of ATP molecules and is used later during the life of the cell, including biosynthesis, i.e. Plastic exchange.

In aerobic organisms allocate:

1. Preparatory - splitting biopolymers to monomers.
2. Oxless - Glycoliz - cleavage of glucose to peer-breed acid.
3. Oxygen - splitting of peyrogradic acid to carbon dioxide and water.

Preparatory stage

At the preparatory stage of the energy exchange, there is a splitting of the organic compounds received from food to simpler, usually monomers. So carbohydrates are split to sugars, including glucose; Proteins - to amino acids; Fats - to glycerol and fatty acids.

Although the energy is released, it does not reserve in ATP and, therefore, cannot be used subsequently. Energy is dissipated in the form of heat.

The splitting of polymers in multicellular complex animals occurs in the digestive tract under the action of enzymes standing out here. Then the resulting monomers are absorbed into the blood mainly through the intestines. Already blood nutrients are spread through cells.

In this case, not all substances decompose to the monomers in the digestive system. The splitting of many occurs directly in cells, in their lysosomes. In single-cell organisms, absorbed substances fall into digestive vacuoles, where they are digested.

The resulting monomers can be used both for energy and plastic metabolism. In the first case, they are split, in the second, the components of the cells themselves are synthesized.

Heavy-minded stage of energy exchange

The oxygen-free stage occurs in the cytoplasm of cells and in the case of aerobic organisms includes only glikoliz - enzymatic multi-stage glucose oxidation and its splitting to peer-breed acidwhich is also called pyruvat.

Glucose molecule includes six carbon atoms. With Glycolize, it is split up to two pyruvate molecules, which includes three carbon atoms. At the same time, part of the hydrogen atoms are cleaved, which are transmitted to the coenzyme over, which, in turn, will then participate in the oxygen stage.

A portion of energy released during glycolysis is intensified in ATP molecules. Only two ATP molecules are synthesized on one glucose molecule.

The energy remaining in Piruvat, stored in the above, aerobes will further be extracted at the next stage of the energy exchange.

In anaerobic conditions, when there is no oxygen stage of cell respiration, the pyruvate "neutralizes" into the milk acid or subjected to fermentation. At the same time, the energy is not covered. Thus, here useful energy output is provided only by little effectary glycolysis.

Oxygen stage

The oxygen stage occurs in mitochondria. It highlights two sub-step: the Krebs cycle and oxidative phosphorylation. Oxygen coming into cells is used only on the second. In the Krebs cycle, the formation and separation of carbon dioxide occurs.

Crebs cycle Person in matrix mitochondria, is carried out by a variety of enzymes. It does not receive a molecule of pirogradic acid (or fatty acid, amino acids), and the acetyl group separated from it with the help of it, which includes two carbon atoms of the former pyruvate. For the multistage cycle of Krebs, the acetyl group is cleaving up to two CO 2 molecules and hydrogen atoms. Hydrogen is connected to above and chapel. The synthesis of the GDF molecule, which leads to the synthesis then ATP.

One molecule of glucose, from which two pyruvate is formed, there are two Krebs cycles. Thus, two ATP molecules are formed. If the energy exchange was completed here, then the total splitting of the glucose molecule would give 4 ATP molecules (two from glycolysis).

Oxidative phosphorylation It flows on crists - the inner membrane of mitochondria. It provides a conveyor of enzymes and coefficers, forming a so-called respiratory chain ending with an ATP synthetase enzyme.

By the respiratory chain, hydrogen and electrons arrived in it from coenzymes over and phased. The transmission is carried out in such a way that hydrogen protons accumulate from the outside of the inner membrane mitochondria, and the last enzymes in the circuit transmit only electrons.

Ultimately, the electrons are transmitted to oxygen molecules that are from the inside of the membrane, as a result of which they charge negatively. The critical level of the electric potential gradient arises, which leads to the movement of protons through the ATP synthetase channels. The energy of hydrogen protons movement is used to synthesize ATP molecules, and the protons themselves are connected to oxygen anions to form water molecules.

The energy output of the functioning of the respiratory chain, expressed in ATP molecules, is large and summed up from 32 to 34 ATP molecules to one source glucose molecule.