The Great Roman Empire is rightfully considered one of the greatest civilizations of the Ancient World. Before its heyday and for a long time after the collapse, the Western world did not know a more powerful state than Ancient Rome. In a short period of time, this power was able to conquer vast territories for itself, and its culture continues to influence humanity to this day.

History of Ancient Rome

The history of one of the most influential states of Antiquity began with small settlements located on the hills along the banks of the Tiber. In 753 BC. NS. these settlements united into a city called Rome. It was founded on seven hills, in a swampy area, in the very epicenter of constantly conflicting peoples - Latins, Etruscans and ancient Greeks. From this date, chronology began in Ancient Rome.

According to an ancient legend, the founders of Rome were two brothers - Romulus and Remus, who were children of the god Mars and the vestal Remy Sylvia. Once at the center of the conspiracy, they were on the verge of death. The brothers were saved from certain death by a she-wolf who fed them with her milk. As they matured, they founded a beautiful city that was named after one of the brothers.

Rice. 1. Romulus and Rem.

Over time, perfectly trained warriors emerged from ordinary farmers, who managed to conquer not only all of Italy, but also many neighboring countries. The system of government, language, achievements of culture and art of Rome spread far beyond its borders. The decline of the Roman Empire fell on 476 BC.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Rome

The formation and development of the Eternal City is usually divided into three most important periods:

• Tsarsky ... The most ancient period of Rome, when the local population consisted mostly of fugitive criminals. With the development of crafts and the formation of the state system, Rome began to develop at a rapid pace. During this period, the power in the city belonged to the kings, the first of whom was Romulus, and the last - Lucius Tarquinius. The rulers did not receive power by inheritance, but were appointed by the Senate. When manipulations and bribery began to be used to obtain the coveted throne, the Senate decided to change the political structure in Rome and proclaimed a republic.

Slavery was widespread in ancient Greek society. The greatest privileges were enjoyed by slaves who served the masters in the house. The hardest hit was the slaves, whose former activities were associated with exhausting work in the fields and the development of mineral deposits.

• Republican ... During this period, all power belonged to the Senate. The borders of Ancient Rome began to expand through the conquest and annexation of the lands of Italy, Sardinia, Sicily, Corsica, Macedonia, and the Mediterranean. The republic was headed by representatives of the nobility, who were elected at a national assembly.
• The Roman Empire ... Power still belonged to the Senate, but a single ruler appeared on the political arena - the Emperor. During that period of time, Ancient Rome increased its territories so much that it became more and more difficult to govern empires. Over time, the power split into the Western Roman Empire and the Eastern, which was later renamed Byzantium.

Urban planning and architecture

The construction of cities in ancient Rome was approached with great responsibility. Each large settlement was built in such a way that two perpendicular roads intersect in its center. At their intersection was the central square, the market and all the most important buildings.

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Engineering thought in ancient Rome reached its peak. The local architects were especially proud of the aqueducts - water conduits through which a large volume of clean water was supplied to the city every day.

Rice. 2. Aqueduct in Ancient Rome.

One of the oldest temples in Ancient Rome was the Capitol, built on one of the seven hills. The Capitoline Temple was not only the focus of religion, it was of great importance in strengthening the state and served as a symbol of the strength, power and might of Rome.

Numerous canals, fountains, an excellent sewerage system, a network of public baths (thermal baths) with hot and cold pools made life much easier for city dwellers.

Ancient Rome became famous for its roads, which provided troops and postal services with rapid movement, contributed to the developed trade. They were built by slaves who dug deep trenches and then filled them with gravel and stone. Roman roads were so solid that they could safely survive for more than one hundred years.

Culture of Ancient Rome

Deeds worthy of a true Roman were philosophy, politics, agriculture, war, civil law. The early culture of Ancient Rome was based on this. Special attention was paid to the development of sciences and various kinds of research.

Ancient Roman art, in particular painting and sculpture, had a lot in common with the art of Ancient Greece. A single ancient culture gave birth to many wonderful writers, poets, playwrights.

The Romans were very fond of entertainment, among which gladiator fights, chariot races and hunting wild animals were in greatest demand. Roman spectacles have become an alternative to the incredibly popular Olympic Games in ancient Greece.

Rice. 3. Gladiator fights.

What have we learned?

When studying the topic "Ancient Rome", we briefly learned the most important thing about Ancient Rome: the history of its origin, features of the formation of the state, the main stages of development. We got acquainted with ancient Roman art, culture, architecture.

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Ancient Rome, nicknamed by the Greeks “Italy” (“Country of Calves”), was located on the Apennine Peninsula. The island of Sicily adjoins the southern tip of ancient Rome. The Apennines has rich mineral deposits. Alpine mountains protect Ancient Rome from northern winds.
At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. among the many tribes and peoples in the Apennines, the Etruscans began to stand out for their development. They lived in free cities and had a written language of ten thousand characters.
In the center of the Apennine Peninsula, in the Lazio region, lived a tribe of Latins, whose language became common Italian. In 753 BC. the city of Rome was founded 25 kilometers from the Tiber River. The most ancient inhabitants of ancient Rome called themselves patricians (pater - father). Arable land and pastures were theirs. People who migrated to ancient Rome from other places and their descendants were called plebeians (commoners). They were supposed to serve in the army, but did not receive land in the communal field. The plebeians rented land from the patricians and gave half of the harvest for this.
The elders of the patricians made up the “council of elders” - the senate. Senators of ancient Rome chose a king for life from among their ranks.
A fortress was built on the Capitol Hill, which, during the attack of enemies, the population used as a refuge. The market square in ancient Rome was called the forum.
Slave labor was used in the most difficult jobs, in handicrafts, in agriculture, and in household work.
In ancient Rome 509 BC. the Romans abolished the tsarist power and established a republic in the country ("public affair"). Every year, the popular assembly elected from among the patricians two rulers - consuls, who ruled Rome, were judges, and in case of war, commanded an army. The Senate enjoyed tremendous power: it was in charge of the treasury, resolved issues of war and peace, and offered ready-made decisions to the people's assembly for voting. The establishment of the republic did not improve the position of the plebeians, they continued to remain powerless and threatened the patricians that they would leave Rome.
The patricians, frightened by the weakening of the army, made concessions to the plebeians. In ancient Rome at the beginning of the 5th century BC. plebeians received the right to elect their defenders annually - tribunes of the people. The tribune could revoke the orders of the consuls and the senate concerning the plebeians. It was enough for him to utter the word “veto” (“I forbid”). The murder of the tribune of the people was considered the most serious crime. Over time, the plebeians won the right to hold consular posts and have land in the communal field. It was forbidden to turn them into slaves for debt.
The 244-year (509-265 BC) struggle between plebeians and patricians ended in favor of the plebeians. From the middle of the 3rd century BC. they became full citizens. Every citizen of ancient Rome could take any position. But unlike Greece, Rome was not paid for work in office, and therefore the poor had no incentive to strive for office.
Relying on the strength of its legions, each with 4,500 heavily armed infantry, Rome, after more than 200 years of continuous fighting, by the first half of the 3rd century BC. subjugated all the peoples living in Italy.
At the beginning of the 3rd century BC. Greek cities in southern Italy were captured. In ancient Rome, based on Greek writing, Latin graphics appeared. Latin became the state language.
The Romans implemented the principle of “divide and rule” in politics. In the process of capturing the whole of Italy, two catch phrases appeared:
1) “Geese saved Rome” (in 390 BC Gauls attacked Rome at night. For some reason the geese made a noise and woke up the defenders of Rome, the enemy's attack failed);
2) "Pyrrhic victory" (a victory tantamount to defeat. I mean the victory of the king of Epirus, who came to the aid of the Greek cities in southern Italy and, at the cost of heavy losses, defeated the Romans).
Between ancient Rome and Carthage located in North Africa, which has a large number of colonies on the islands and the Mediterranean coast, a struggle unfolded for the conquest of the island of Sicily. Gradually, individual clashes escalated into the Punic Wars, as the Romans called the Carthaginians Puns.
The first Punic War (264-241 BC) ended with the victory of the Romans, who got Sicily. Then Rome attacked Sardinia and Corsica, and Carthage in 219 BC. attacked the ally of ancient Rome in Spain, the city of Sagunt. This was the reason for Rome for the second Punic War (218-201 BC). The Carthaginian general Hannibal unexpectedly made a campaign from Spain to Italy. In northern Italy, in the Po valley, the Gauls tribes joined him. Some tribes and cities believed Hannibal's promise to free them from the rule of Rome and also sided with him. In 216 BC. at the battle of Cannes, the Carthaginians used their cavalry advantage and won. Tens of thousands of Romans were killed or captured. The Romans mobilized all suitable men into the army and changed their battle tactics. In 204 BC. Roman army under the command of Scipio landed in Africa. Hannibal was forced to leave Italy to protect Carthage.

In 202 BC. in the battle at the city of Zama south of Carthage, the Romans won again. In 201 BC. peace was concluded, according to which Carthage:

• surrendered his navy;
• paid reparations;
• renounced territorial claims outside Africa.

Wanting to end the commercial power of Carthage, the Romans launched the Third Punic War (149 -146 BC). As a result, Carthage was captured and turned into a Roman province. In 190 BC. Ancient Rome conquered Syria and captured her lands in Asia Minor. Then, with the help of the Greeks, promising them independence, Rome defeated Macedonia, and in 146 BC. occupied Greece as well. Thus, Ancient Rome became the most powerful state in the Mediterranean Sea.
By the decision of the Senate, the victorious commander was awarded a triumph. The triumphant solemnly entered the city on a cart drawn by four white horses, followed by his troops, carrying rich booty, leading the prisoners. The occupied territories became an ancient Roman province, they were ruled by Roman governors.
Numerous wars of conquest, as well as an increase in the number of slaves, led to the ruin of the peasantry in ancient Rome. In 133 BC. Tiberius Gracchus was elected the tribune of the people, who realized the danger of impoverishment of the peasantry for ancient Rome and proposed a new land law, according to which:
1) each wealthy Roman was entitled to no more than 250 hectares of land; excess land was taken away and given to the poor;
2) the land received was forbidden to be sold. It remained forever the property of the peasants.
In ancient Rome, the Senate rejected this bill, and the popular assembly passed it. Then the senators falsely accused Tiberius of wanting to usurp power and killed him.
In 123 BC. brother of Tiberius - Gaius Gracchus was also elected a tribune of the people. He tried to continue the work of his brother, and tens of thousands of poor people received land. However, in another battle on the streets of Rome, Gaius Gracchus and three thousand of his supporters were killed. After that, the Senate stopped distributing land and passed a law allowing peasants to sell the land received from the state.
The rich again began to build up their land holdings, buying up the allotments of the poor peasants.
Plundering the conquered territories, the Romans brought a lot of booty and slaves. The largest slave market was on the island of Delos in the Aegean Sea. Slave labor was used in agriculture and construction, in the estates of the rich, as well as in the silver mines of occupied Spain. In ancient Rome, the tools of labor were called “dumb” oxen - “mooing”, and slaves were called “talking tools of labor”.
From the 3rd century BC in ancient Rome, gladiator fights began to be carried out (“gladius” - sword). These fierce competitions date back to the Etruscan custom of fighting in honor of the fallen warriors. Strong and dexterous slaves were trained in special schools to handle weapons and forced to fight with each other. Such slaves were called “gladiators”. For gladiatorial battles, an amphitheater was built, in the center of which a sandy platform was arranged - an arena. The fate of the defeated gladiator depended entirely on the audience.
In ancient Rome 74 BC. at the school of gladiators in Capua, a group of gladiators led by the Thracian Spartacus rebelled and took refuge on Mount Vesuvius. Spartacus did not allow the troops of the two consuls sent against him to unite, and, striving to leave Italy, he fought in the north to the valley of the Po River. However, unexpectedly Spartacus turned back and went to southwestern Italy in order to raise an uprising on the island of Sicily. The pirates who contracted to transport the rebellious slaves to the island deceived Spartacus. The Roman army, led by Crassus, surrounded his fighters. Pompey also ripened to help Crassus. Spartacus fell into a trap, and famine began among the rebels. Deciding that "death from iron is better than from hunger", Spartacus attacked Crassus, but was defeated in 71 BC. and died. Lack of unity of opinion, inability to rally to solve a common problem, and poorly armed slaves caused the defeat of the uprising.
Successful wars of conquest increased the influence of the military leaders in Rome. The soldiers obeyed only the commander, who paid them for their service and allocated part of the loot. After the defeat of Spartacus in ancient Rome, there was a struggle for power between Crassus, Pompey and Caesar. Caesar achieved his election as consul, and then was appointed governor of the province of Gaul. He gathered an army of mercenaries and for 8 years waged a war with the Gauls in order to conquer their entire country. Caesar knew how to flirt with the poor. To become a consul, he demanded free distribution of bread and land to the poor, and organized gladiatorial battles. He also flirted with the mercenaries, doubling the salary at the expense of mining and promising land allotments after the war. After the capture of Gaul, Caesar turned his troops to Rome - crossed the border river Rubicon. This was seen as a rebellion against the republic. When crossing the river, Caesar said: "The die is cast." After overcoming the resistance of Pompey, Caesar in 49 BC. entered Rome and captured all of Italy. In pursuit of Pompey, Caesar defeated him in the Balkans. The military actions of Caesar's supporters against Pompey's supporters were called civil war (military operations between citizens of one country). To strengthen his power in Rome, Caesar waged wars in Asia, Africa and Spain for three more years. The Senate proclaimed Caesar “emperor” (“sovereign”). The emperor was honored as a king. His portrait was minted on coins, his statues stood next to the statues of the gods. Only the candidates approved by him were elected to the posts of consuls and tribunes of the people. In 44 BC. some of the senators, led by a friend of Caesar, Brutus, conspired to preserve an aristocratic republic in Rome. Caesar was killed in the Senate. The assassins, fearing retribution, fled to Macedonia. Caesar's heir Octavian and Caesar's companion Antony overtook the fugitives near the city of Philip and dealt with them. The victors divided the ruling of the Roman state among themselves: Antony ruled the eastern provinces, Octavian ruled the western. Anthony subsequently married the Egyptian queen Cleopatra.
Over time, the relationship between Octavian and Antony escalated and escalated into a war. In 31 BC. in the battle at Cape Aktius, Anthony was defeated. In 30 BC. the troops of Octavian occupied Alexandria. Antony and Cleopatra committed suicide. Egypt was turned into a province of Rome. The civil wars in Rome ended with the victory of Octavian over Antony. During the reign of Octavian (30 BC -14 AD), the form of republican government was preserved (senate, popular assembly, consuls, tribunes), but the country was ruled solely by Emperor Octavian. The Senate conferred on him the honorary title "Augustus" ("sacred"). Since the reign of Octavian, Rome became an empire, and a ruler - an emperor.
In the 1st-2nd centuries A.D. ancient Rome reached the pinnacle of power. But the way of managing with the use of unproductive slave labor led to the decline of the empire's economy.
Slave labor was hard and irrational. Slaves were not trusted with expensive tools, thus slavery hindered the development of technology.
In order to interest the slave as a result of his labor, some slaves were given a plot of land, were given tools, were allowed to build huts and start a family. These slaves were called "hut slaves." They gave the owner a certain amount of wages and part of the product of their labor, and kept the rest for themselves. The owners of large estates divided the land into small plots and leased them to free peasants. Such small tenants were called colonists ("farmer"). Colon gave only the rent to the landlord. But having received a loan of instruments of labor, livestock and seeds, the columns became dependent on the landowner. In the II century BC. Emperor Hadrian forbade the killing of slaves.
In the 1st century, legends appeared that the son of God, Jesus Christ, was born in Palestine - “chosen by God”, the legends recorded about him were called “the gospel” (“good news”). According to the Romans, Jesus was a troublemaker who wanted to crush the foundations of Roman rule in Palestine. At first, only the poor and slaves accepted Christianity. Gradually, the teaching about Christ spread throughout the Roman Empire. Then the Christian communities united into a single organization - the Christian church. At the beginning of the IV century, the emperor Constantine came to power in Rome, who:
1. In 313 he legalized Christianity and himself adopted this religion. For his services to Christianity, he was subsequently canonized;
2. In 330, on the site of the former Greek colony, Byzantium founded the city of Constantinople (now Istanbul) and moved the capital there.
In the IV century, the raids of barbarians (“speaking in an incomprehensible language”, “strangers”) to Rome intensified. Among them, the tribes of the Goths stood out. In the second half of the 4th century, they could not resist the onslaught of the Huns and entered the borders of the Roman Empire. Pledging to defend the borders of the empire, the Goths received permission to settle in its depopulated areas. The Empire promised to supply them with food, but they deceived. The hungry Goths revolted, the Roman army was defeated and the Emperor Valens perished.
In 395, Emperor Theodosius I, before his death, divided the Roman Empire between his two sons, and two empires were formed:
1. Eastern Roman Empire (Byzantium) with its capital in Constantinople (this includes the Balkan Peninsula, Egypt and Asia Minor);
2. Western Roman Empire with the capital in Rome (this includes Italy, Europe and the western provinces in Africa).
In 410, the Germanic tribes of the Goths, under the leadership of Aparich, captured Rome and plundered it for three days. In 451, the troops of the leader of the Huns Attila and the troops of Rome met near Orleans. A year later, Attila approached the city of Ravenna and the Pope humbly asked him for peace.
Another Germanic tribe of the Vandals made a trip through Spain to Africa and formed their kingdom there. In 455, the Vandals captured Rome and plundered it for 14 days. After this event, the word “vandal” became a household word (“wild”, “brutally destroying cultural monuments”).
Finally, in 476, the Germanic tribes overthrew the last emperor Romulus Augustulus and brought an end to the Western Roman Empire. At the same time, the slave system collapsed here. Therefore, 476 is considered the end of the history of the ancient world.
Ancient Rome was called the “Eternal Golden City”. At the beginning of our era, more than a million people lived here. To prevent the unrest of the poor, the emperors distributed bread and small coins to the poor. By order of the emperor, baths (terms) with cold and hot water were built. An artificial lake was created in the vicinity of Rome to demonstrate sea battles.
On the Palatine Hill, near the Forum, there were palaces. Among the majestic buildings of Rome, the Colosseum ("great") stands out with an amphitheater for 50 thousand people. The Pantheon was considered “the temple of all gods”. On the Capitol Hill was the temple of the god Jupiter. In the II century, a 40-meter column was erected on the banks of the Danube in honor of Emperor Trajan for the victory.
Period from the 1st century BC and up to the 1st century A.D. considered the “golden age” of Roman poetry. At this time were written "Aeneid" Virgil, "On the nature of things" by Lucretius, "Natural history" by Pliny. In 79, while trying to better study the eruption of Mount Vesuvius, Pliny died.
The ancient Romans invented concrete. In architecture, triumphal arches abounded for the meeting of the victorious commanders. Many peoples use the Latin script of the Romans today. The calendar, compiled under Caesar, with minor changes, is used to this day. The Latin names of many months have been preserved. July is named after Julius Caesar, August is named after Octavian Augustus.
Ancient Rome in subsequent eras, the culture of antiquity served as the basis for the development of the culture of European countries.

Today they shout a lot about the total decline of morals and the violation of family values. Indeed, the stars of the porn industry are no longer persona non grata, but head car races, pedophile scandals have already eclipsed financial scandals. But those who exclaim - “where the world is heading!” Do not even suspect in what chaste society we actually live.

In the days of antiquity, the world fell into a mess. What was the norm for the ancient Greeks and Romans would shock us. So, an excursion into the times of ancient customs.

I came, I saw, I got it

To understand the psychology of people of that time, you need to familiarize yourself with their myths.

For the Greeks and Romans wrote their gods from themselves, so the behavior of the celestials is the embodiment of the innermost desires of mere mortals. Greek myths are not recommended for children under the age of sixteen. There is so much sex, blood and violence that XXX porn films seem like an innocent transmission of "Good night, kids!" Take Zeus (from the Romans - Jupiter), the ruler of the sky, thunder, lightning, in charge of the whole world. This sexual terrorist cheats right and left on his wife Hera and is guided by one thing: to impregnate everything that moves. For this, he is ready to become at least a carcass, even a stuffed animal. He loves women and men alike: in the guise of a snake he seduces Demeter and Persephone, in the skin of a bull - Europe, under the guise of a swan - Leda, pretending to be an eagle - a beautiful youth Ganymede, in the guise of an ant - Eurymedus, as a dove - Phthia, in a fiery guise - Aegina, as a satyr - Antiope, under the guise of a cloud - Io, in the guise of a hedgehog ... no, the hedgehog, it seems, was not there. But even the underground bunker, where Danae was hidden from this maniac, is not an obstacle for him. Zeus turns into golden rain, seeps through the ceiling and enters her bosom. Well, what do you want? The guy has a bad heredity: dad is a god-eater. His father Kronos swallowed his children so that they would not be overthrown, and Zeus was not digested only because the wise mother slipped a stone wrapped in diapers to her husband instead of a newborn. However, Zeus's dad threw out things and worse. Since his own father Uranus mistreated his mother Earth, Kronos once ambushed his parents' bedchamber and, at the very moment of his father's orgasm, waved a sickle in the balls, revealing the most precious thing to his father. He threw his father's reproductive organ into the sea, thanks to which the beautiful Aphrodite was born.

Yes, I will disappoint the beautiful ladies who are sure that the goddess of love came from sea foam, delicate and aromatic, like the German remedy "Badusan". Everything is much more brutal. Here is what the researcher of ancient culture Hans Licht writes on this score: “In the most ancient source (Hesiod,“ Theogony ”) the following is unequivocally stated:“ For a long time, the penis was worn across the sea, and white foam was whipped around it, emanating from the immortal penis, and in it Aphrodite was born. " That is, the genital organ, cut off at the time of sexual intercourse, was full of semen, which is now erupting outward, giving rise to Aphrodite, into the sea and together with the sea. There is not even a hint of sea foam here. " Now imagine for a moment that for the people of the ancient world, all this is by no means fairy tales. This is a story as real as the Tatar-Mongol yoke for us. The ancient Greeks did not doubt the exploits of Hercules and looked up to the gods in everything - from actions to sex.

No sexual minorities

The first thing that would strike us in ancient society is the lack of a strong sexual orientation. The Greeks and Romans were not divided into heterosexuals, homosexuals, or bisexuals - they were allsexual. They were quite tolerant of even bestiality (from ritual to everyday life), for their sexually preoccupied gods did not shy away from it either. This can be confirmed by the myths about Leda and the swan, the Minotaur, Triton, insatiable goat-footed satyrs, centaurs and ugly cinephals - people with dog heads. All this is an echo of the sexual contacts of the ancients with representatives of other biological species. For the ancient pagans, sex was not a sin under any circumstances. On the contrary, it is an invaluable gift from the gods. It was they who made man sexually omnivorous, and in the famous dialogue "Symposium" Plato says how it was. Zeus, when creating a man, immediately relied on three sexes: man, woman and husband-woman (androgyne). He divided each sex in half - that is why those who descended from the original man look for their soul mate in the form of men, who descended from the original woman prefer women. And only from the androgynes did men who love women and women who love men lead their kind. So love for one's sex is natural and pleasing to God in Hellas and Ancient Rome. They did not even have special words corresponding to our "gay" or "lesbian". But the personal name Pedophile was. And the ancient Greeks did not see anything reprehensible in him (as well as in the phenomenon itself).

Platonic love

The common modern joke about the fact that "a pedophile differs from a teacher in that the first one really loves children" would hardly have been appreciated by the ancient Greeks. Pedophilia and pederasty were the most important part of the intellectual, spiritual and physical formation of a young man. By the method of education, sanctioned by the state. Upon reaching the age of twelve, every Greek teenager had to acquire a senior mentor who would show him all kinds of attention, give him gifts, admire his beauty and instruct him in all male prowess, acting as a guardian, adviser, friend, trainer and sexual partner. The youngest in such pairs was called "ait" - the listener, and the older - "espnel", the inspirer. And for a man it was considered a violation of duty not to attract a young man to him, and for a young man it was a shame not to deserve such a friendship.

By the way, those who consider the expression "Platonic love" to be synonymous with love without physical contact, will be curious to know that just according to Plato, the highest manifestation of love is a harmonious fusion of the spiritual principle and physical bodies of a mentor and a student. "Platonic love" is homosexual love. The Greeks considered homosexual love to be more sublime and deeper than the relaxing and pampering love of men for women. The world of ancient Greece is a man's world. The woman in him is a lower being, unable to satisfy the intellectual needs of men. It is suitable only for childbearing and carnal pleasures. While lofty thoughts are open to young men, that is why lofty relationships are possible only with them. For a Greek, a handsome youth is always preferable to a beautiful woman. No wonder Plato writes in Protagoras: “The youthful color of a twelve-year-old boy makes me happy, but a boy of about thirteen is preferable. The one who is fourteen is an even sweeter flower of the Eroths, and even more charming is the one who is only fifteen.

The sixteenth year is the age of the gods, and wanting to be seventeen is not mine, but Zeus's ... "Stratus echoes him:" I am not attracted by either the luxury of hair or curly locks, if they are not produced by nature, but by the diligence of art. No, I love the thick dirt on the boy, who has just come out of the palestra, and the delicate shine of his body, moistened with fresh olive oil. Love without embellishment is sweet to me, and artificial beauty is the work of the female Cypride. " No one could have convinced the ancient Greek of the educational benefits of pederasty, for it was from pederasts, in their opinion, that the best defenders of the fatherland grew up. After all, a man in love with his partner did not run away from the enemy, but fiercely fought for his beloved until the very end. And this is absolutely true. Formed in Thebes, the elite Sacred Detachment, consisting of 150 love couples, showed itself heroically on the battlefields and completely fell down in the Battle of Chaeronea. Finally, anyone in Hellas knew that homosexuality was good for health. The famous Hippocrates had two hands for homosexual relationships, for "they bring youth and health to adult men, and masculinity and other positive qualities of an adult man are transmitted to adolescents through his seed." True, there were also limitations. Homosexuality is the lot of free citizens, slaves did not have the right to intercourse with free-born boys. Male prostitution was also not welcomed - it was believed that selling his own body for money would easily renounce the general interests of the state. Rome, which adopted sexual customs from the Hellenes, was also very loyal to homosexuality. Edward Gibbon, an English historian of the 18th century, speaking of the first fifteen emperors, states that "Claudius was the only one whose taste in love affairs was completely natural." All the rest were cohabiting with the boys. Moreover, Emperor Hadrian, passionately in love with the teenage Greek Antinous after he drowned, officially deified him and erected statues of him throughout the empire.

The law is harsh

And yet neither the ancient Greeks nor the ancient Romans can be called adherents of free love. They had strict rules of sexual behavior.

A Roman citizen could indulge in any kind of sexual play with women, men and adolescents. But - subject to two conditions. First: in an intimate relationship with a partner, he should always dominate. Be active, not passive. A passive role in anal sex was considered a shame, since the citizen becomes "effeminate" and, having lost his virtus (courage, valor), turns out to be useless in civil and military terms. In the army, passive homosexuality was considered a crime; a soldier who was convicted of it was simply beaten with sticks. In civilian life, those who liked to play a passive role were contemptuously called “kineds” or “paticus”, lowering their legal status below the plinth. Like prostitutes, gladiators and actors, passive homosexuals did not have the right to vote in elections, nor could they represent themselves in court. The second rule: the object of sexual desire of a citizen must be at a lower social level than he is. This was dictated by purely economic reasons: so that the appearance of an illegitimate son of the same rank would not jeopardize the hereditary rights of legal offspring. If both rules were respected, no one ever reproached a Roman for his sexual addictions.

Kamasutra for slaves

The sexual life of married couples in ancient Rome was rather insipid. Although in the Roman house they openly talk about sex, hiding nothing from the younger generation. Often, the wife and husband, having retired to the bedroom, do not even pull the curtains over the bed. Everyone can see the act of intercourse between the owner and the mistress - right down to the domestic servant, who continues to calmly clean up the house. However, a number of restrictions were imposed on the relationship between husband and wife in bed. It would never occur to a wife to ask her husband to give her oral sex. Likewise, her husband would not have asked her. There was a taboo on oral sex between equals in ancient Rome. I will say more - for this they were deprived of citizenship. A free Roman could take pleasure, but not deliver it. It was considered shameful and indecent. But this taboo did not apply to slaves, freedmen and non-citizens. And therefore, the ancient Roman citizen, like the ancient Roman citizen, could get what they wanted by resorting to the services of the lower in rank. They could call a slave or a slave, go for inaccessible caresses in the nearest brothel, but never get them from their legal spouse.

As archaeologist and historian Alberto Angela writes in his wonderful book A Day in Ancient Rome, “The Romans were simply fixated on the mouth. For them, the mouth is something noble, almost sacred. It is a social tool, because people talk, address each other, exchange information, make speeches, and therefore, it must be clean and undefiled. In the Senate, the mouth generally becomes a political instrument. Therefore (...) to accuse the senator of having performed oral sex, to call him Fellator, is to inflict a grave insult on him. It was tantamount to being accused of treason for defiling a mouth that has such an important function in the service of society. " In this vein, the Clinton-Lewinsky scandal, which nearly cost the US President his seat, looks curious. Endowed with serious power, a person allowed himself to be satisfied orally by his subordinate. Was in his own right. If Clinton had lived in ancient times, he would not have had to apologize to his wife or pay lawyers. But Lewinsky would not have turned into a celebrity and millionaire, but would have been on the same level with slaves and prostitutes. The doors of decent houses would close in front of her forever ...

Handmade

Christian theologians and priests for centuries have frightened masturbators with a madhouse and a cemetery, claiming that masturbation leads to dementia, blindness, stomach cramps, diarrhea, consumption and epilepsy. And the Greeks saw masturbation as an outlet. Masturbation reduced, in their opinion, the number of rapes, the number of illegitimate and suicides about unrequited love, so it is useful. They loved to depict such scenes on vases, and their language had an amazingly many words to reflect this concept, including the poetic "singing a wedding song with the hand" and "fighting with the hand with Aphrodite." By the way, the Greeks preferred to use their left hand for this purpose (closer to heart). And they did not hesitate to do it in public. In particular, a brilliant representative of the philosophical school of the Cynics, Diogenes of Sinop (the one who lived in a barrel, or rather, in pithos, a hefty earthen vessel for grain). Calling on his fellow citizens to be content with little and to abandon passions in order to enjoy the serene joy of being, he often pulled up his tunic and began to masturbate, accompanying the action with the wise maxim: “Oh, if only I could just as easily, rubbing my stomach, get rid of hunger and need” ... Women in this area did not lag behind men. In the bedroom of every Greek woman there were devices called Baubones or Olisbs. These dildos were made everywhere, but the best were the self-satisfaction from the city of Miletus, from where they were exported throughout the Ecumene. The women were proud of them and often exchanged them among themselves. So, in the sixth mimiyamba Geronda, entitled "Two Friends, or Confidential Conversation", the Metro girl complains that her friend Corrito had a wonderful olisb, but she, not having time to use it, passed it on to her friend Evbula, and she still someone , which is a pity - after all, Metro would very much like to get this instrument, since it was made by a skilled craftsman.

Fidelity is a relative concept

According to the testimony of Euripides, the Greeks were the first of the ancient peoples to observe the principle of monogamy, believing that bringing many wives into the house is a barbaric custom and unworthy of a noble Hellene. But at the same time, adultery in antiquity extended only to women. Cheating on his wife was severely condemned, and the husband had every right to kill her lover, and sometimes herself. Society turned a blind eye to her husband's betrayal and the presence of many concubines.

As Hans Licht writes, "Greek public opinion did not know the reasons, using which, one could condemn a man tired of the eternal monotony of married life and looking for rest in the arms of an intelligent and charming courtesan or who knows how to brighten up his daily routine with a conversation with a pretty young man." And it must be admitted that in this the Greeks were more moral than we are, since they recognized that a man had a penchant for polygamy and acted not secretly, but openly.

Therefore, the poets praised the ideal of an understanding woman who did not interfere with her husband's love affairs. For example, a Greek had every right to even go to his home with friends in the company of girls - in this case, the wife was supposed to show modesty, retire to the female part of the house and patiently wait for the end of the feast. In Sparta, treason was actually welcomed. This small and warlike state was vitally interested in increasing the number of warriors strong in body and spirit. Moreover, older Spartan husbands could delegate their marital duties to younger men of their choice, since each of them equally disposed of both their children and strangers.

In Rome, the laws of Augustus provided for strict punishment for violation of marital fidelity, for adultery with another man's wife, however, men were not punished for concubine, for having a relationship with a concubine. And, of course, every man of the ancient world had every right to visit brothels. After all, a relationship with a prostitute was not considered treason at all.

Moths

Neither Ancient Greece nor Ancient Rome knew a shortage of brothels and prostitutes. The ancient world looked at venal love without prejudice. The business is necessary, useful, profitable. Moreover, it is very beneficial for the state budget.

Brothels were in Greece under the supervision of city officials, and brothel owners were required to pay an annual tax to the state. The Romans treated going to brothels in much the same way as going to public latrines. He walked, pressed, entered, left. At the same time, the wife could easily wait for her husband in the tavern opposite and even ask him to take his time. It seems wild to us. For the Romans, it’s completely normal. After all, they did not see adultery in this. The husband became an adulterer only when he had sex with an equal. The rest is how to cope, how to brush your teeth. Therefore, a Roman matron could easily, bored, gnaw a peach in her room, while in the next room her husband frolicked with wild screams with a slave or a slave. And she was not at all shocked that in the evening he went with his friends to blow off steam to the nearest brothel. The brothels (they were called lupanaria) in the Eternal City were like mud, and they all worked on the principle of a conveyor belt, which Henry Ford himself would have envied. To speed up customer service and automate the process of providing sex services, the owners of lupanaria have even introduced special tokens - spintria. They were made of bronze, less often of bone, and resembled coins. On one side of it, sexual intercourse was depicted, on the other there was a number. The pose depicted on the spintria corresponded to the service rendered by the prostitute for this token, and the figure corresponded to either the price or the number of the booth. Historians disagree on this issue. At the same time, the price was ridiculous. On average - 2 asa, like a glass of cheap wine. Child prostitution was also widespread. In Rome, whole farms of laborers and laborers of the sex industry flourished, the owners of which bought child slaves and raised orphans for prostitution. Their sexual use was permitted by law, for which taxes were regularly paid to the treasury. Moreover, the rape of a slave or a slave by a pimp was not punishable.

In Rome, the laws of August provided for severe penalties for adultery, but every man in the ancient world had every right to visit brothels. after all, a relationship with a prostitute was not considered treason at all.

Size matters...

The image of the phallus on the streets of ancient cities was almost more common than today a word of three letters on the fence. The phallus was idolized. He was worshiped. The Greeks placed square columns with a male head and erect genitals in front of temples and houses, which, in their opinion, guarded roads, borders and gates. The Romans preferred huge stone members, which were installed in squares, streets, in front of the entrance to houses and taverns. They were cut down on the walls of porticos, on the pavements, hung over children's cradles, baker's ovens, were an integral part of the landscape of gardens, fields and vegetable gardens. Bronze phalluses (and often whole bundles of them) with bells inside were hung from the ceiling of the dwelling or at the entrance. They were called "tintinnabulas" and rang when touched. And everyone who passed by touched them, because otherwise he risked losing his luck and health. And all because the people of antiquity believed that an erect penis is a terrible force. He was for them a symbol of prosperity, wealth, abundance, fertility and fertility. A symbol of victory, wealth and success in business. In addition, the phallus, as the source of semen and life, was credited with the magical ability to drive away troubles, misfortunes and scare away evil spirits. And if a Christian, faced with something terrible and unknown, in our day exclaims "the power of the cross is with us!" Therefore, the first thing that the ancient Roman boy received as a gift from his parents was a rattle in the form of a penis and a fascinum - a stone, bronze or bone image of a phallus, which he wore around his neck as an amulet, sometimes adding to it the image of a fig for reliability. fig - an ancient symbol of sexual intercourse. And in life, the ancient Romans, like the Greeks, preferred a member of modest size. Great manhood was considered by them to be impractical, unaesthetic and even comical. It is easy to be convinced of this by glancing at the antique statues. Between their legs dangles not a miracle of XXL size, but a device that requires tweezers and a magnifying glass to study. Almost a child's size. The ancients believed that size was not the main thing. The main thing is love heat and the ability to fertilize. And they believed that for this, the shorter the device, the better. Aristotle wrote that a short term has a lot of advantages: it looks more beautiful, the seed has to cover a shorter distance, and therefore it more accurately reaches the goal. Logics! The only exception was the theater. In the Eternal City, performances of acrobatic sex began to be in demand - a kind of analogue of modern cinema porn. The actors on the stage tried to amaze the audience with their incredible poses that put the Kama Sutra to shame, and the audience tried to see everything in detail. Therefore, actors with huge penises were prized in these shows (shown in between classic comedies and tragedies). After all, they could be seen even from the far rows. Ancient people treated penis hygiene with trepidation. He was regularly washed, anointed with oil, and before performing physical exercises, he was infibulated, namely: they pulled the foreskin over the head and tied it with a ribbon so that, God forbid, it would not be damaged. So the antique fitness room looked much funnier than the modern ones: a crowd of naked men - and each member with a bow.

Beautiful ass goddess

If we talk about the canon of female beauty, then the tastes of the ancient Greeks and Romans were close to the tastes of today's Caucasians. They appreciated curvy blondes. And to be competitive with the blonde-haired German slaves, women have invented many ingenious recipes. Wigs, citric acid, onion peels, milk and even lime were used. And since light, shiny skin, according to men, testified not only to aristocracy, but also to passion, women tried not to sunbathe and washed themselves with goat and donkey milk.

However, it took more to be known as a sex bomb. A low forehead, a straight nose and large protruding eyes were needed, and the distance between the eyes should be at least the size of one eye, and the mouth should be one and a half times larger than the eye. In addition, wide hips, powerful thighs, a chest that fit into a man's palm or a little more, and a slightly overhanging bulging belly were needed. These forms were considered perfect, as they served as a guarantee of fertility. Great attention was paid to the buttocks. The Greeks had a clear fad on this score. They idolized Aphrodite Kallipiga - Aphrodite the Beautiful Ass, built a special temple for her and regularly held competitions in her honor to identify the best Callipiga in Hellas. These beauty contests for women's butts were incredibly popular in all Greek policies, the sirloin part aroused Greek men clearly more than women's breasts. By the way, the familiar symbol of a heart pierced by an arrow comes from Ancient Greece. But it has nothing to do with the anatomical heart. It is a stylized part of a woman's ass, and the piercing arrow is one of the oldest phallic symbols. Draw your own conclusions ... The second Greco-Roman fad in the field of sexual and aesthetic preferences was hair vegetation. They could not stand her, considered her a terribly unaesthetic sign of barbarism. And everywhere - on the legs, and under the armpits, and in the genital area. Their ideal was a woman with a clean-shaven bosom, and men were not at all concerned with what kind of pain this was achieved. And here you can only sympathize with women. Thus, the comedian Plato speaks of “myrtle bushes plucked out by the hand,” and according to Aristophanes, women often used a lighted lamp or hot ash for this purpose. Beauty requires sacrifice. At least in this we are united with the ancient world.

Dmitry Lychkovsky

Crossed letters Chi and Ro).

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  It is based on the forms of government, which, in turn, reflected the socio-political situation: from the tsarist rule at the beginning of history to the dominant empire at its end.

  Tsarist period and republic

  During the tsarist period, Rome was a small state that occupied only part of the territory of Latium - the area of ​​residence of the Latin tribe. During the period of the Early Republic, Rome expanded its territory significantly thanks to numerous wars. After the Pyrrhic War, Rome began to reign supreme over the Apennine Peninsula, although the vertical system of control over the subordinate territories had not yet taken shape at that time. After the conquest of Italy, Rome became a prominent player in the Mediterranean, which soon led him to conflict with Carthage, a large state founded by the Phoenicians in North Africa. In a series of three Punic Wars, the Carthaginian state was completely defeated, and the city itself was destroyed. At this time, Rome also began expansion to the East, subjugating Illyria, Greece, and then Asia Minor, Syria and Judea.

  The Roman Empire

  In the 1st century BC. NS. Rome was rocked by a series of civil wars, as a result of which the ultimate victor, Octavian Augustus, formed the foundations of the principate system and founded the Julian-Claudian dynasty, which, however, did not hold out in power for a century. The heyday of the Roman Empire fell on a relatively calm time of the II century, but already the III century was filled with a struggle for power and, as a result, political instability, and the foreign policy position of the empire was complicated. The establishment of a dominant system by Diocletian stabilized the situation for a while by concentrating power in the hands of the emperor and his bureaucratic apparatus. In the IV century, under the blows of the Huns, the division of the empire into two parts was finalized, and Christianity became the state religion of the entire empire. In the 5th century, the Western Roman Empire became the object of an active resettlement of Germanic tribes, which finally undermined the unity of the state. The overthrow of the last emperor of the Western Roman Empire, Romulus Augustus, by the German leader Odoacer on September 4, 476 is considered the traditional date of the fall of the Roman Empire.

  Magistrates could submit a bill (rogatio) to the Senate, where it was discussed. Initially, the Senate had 100 members, during most of the history of the Republic there were about 300 members, Sulla doubled the number of members, later their numbers varied. A place in the Senate was obtained after passing ordinary magistrates, but the censors had the right to lustration the Senate with the possibility of expelling individual senators. The Senate met in calendars, nons, and idam every month, and also on any day in the event of an emergency convocation of the senate. At the same time, there were some restrictions on the convocation of the Senate and the comitia in the event that the appointed day was declared unfavorable for one or another "sign".

  Dictators who were elected on special occasions and for no more than 6 months had extraordinary powers and, unlike ordinary magistrates, were not accountable. With the exception of the extraordinary magistracy of the dictator, all positions in Rome were collegiate.

  Society

  The laws

  As for the Romans, for them the task of war was not just victory over the enemy or the establishment of peace; the war only ended to their satisfaction when the former enemies became "friends" or allies (socii) of Rome. The goal of Rome was not to subjugate the whole world to the power and imperium of Rome, but to spread the Roman system of alliances to all countries of the earth. The Roman idea was expressed by Virgil, and it was not just a poet's fantasy. The Roman people themselves, populus Romanus, owed their existence to such a war-born partnership, namely, an alliance between patricians and plebeians, the end of the internal strife between whom was put by the famous Leges XII Tabularum. But even this document of their history, sanctified by antiquity, was not considered by the Romans to be divinely inspired; they preferred to believe that Rome had sent a commission to Greece to study the systems of legislation there. Thus, the Roman Republic, itself based on law - an indefinite alliance between patricians and plebeians - used the leges instrument mainly for treaties and administration of provinces and communities belonging to the Roman system of alliances, in other words, to the ever-expanding group of Roman socii that formed societas Romana.

  Social structure of Roman society

  At the initial stage of development, Roman society consisted of two main estates - patricians and plebeians. According to the most common version of the origin of these two main classes, patricians are the indigenous inhabitants of Rome, and the plebeians are an alien population, who, however, had civil rights. The patricians were first united in 100 and then in 300 genera. Initially, the plebeians were forbidden to marry patricians, which ensured the isolation of the patrician estate. In addition to these two estates, in Rome there were also patrician clients (in this case, the patrician acted in relation to the client in the role of patron) and slaves.

  Over time, the social structure as a whole has become noticeably more complex. Horsemen appeared - people not always of noble birth, but engaged in commercial operations (trade was considered an unworthy occupation by the patricians) and concentrated significant wealth in their hands. Among the patricians, the most noble families stood out, and some of the families gradually faded away. Around the 3rd century. BC NS. the patriciate merges with the horsemen into the nobility.

  At the age of 17-18, the young man had to leave the doctrine and undergo military service.

  The Romans also cared about the fact that women received education in connection with the role they had in the family: organizer of family life and educator of children at an early age. There were schools where girls studied with boys. And it was considered honorable if they said about a girl that she was an educated girl. In the Roman state, already in the 1st century AD, they began to train slaves, as slaves and freedmen began to play an increasingly noticeable role in the economy of the state. Slaves became managers of estates and were engaged in trade, were put overseers over other slaves. Literate slaves were attracted to the bureaucratic apparatus of the state, many slaves were teachers and even architects.

  A literate slave was worth more than an illiterate one because he could be used for skilled work. Educated slaves were called the main value of the Roman rich man Mark Licinius Crassus.

  Former slaves, freedmen, gradually began to form a significant stratum in Rome. They strove to take the place of an employee, a manager in the state apparatus, to engage in commercial activities, usury. Their advantage over the Romans began to appear, which consisted in the fact that they did not shy away from any work, considered themselves disadvantaged and showed perseverance in the struggle for their place under the sun. Ultimately, they were able to achieve legal equality, to push the Romans away from government.

  Army

  The Roman army for almost the entire period of its existence was, as practice proved, the most advanced among the rest of the states of the Ancient World, having gone from the people's militia to professional regular infantry and cavalry with many auxiliary units and allied formations. At the same time, the main fighting force has always been the infantry (in the era of the Punic Wars, in fact, the marines that showed themselves perfectly appeared). The main advantages of the Roman army were mobility, flexibility and tactical training, which allowed it to operate in conditions of various terrain and in harsh weather conditions.

  With a strategic threat to Rome or Italy, or a sufficiently serious military threat ( tumultus) all work was stopped, production was stopped and everyone who could simply carry weapons was recruited into the army - the inhabitants of this category were called tumultuarii (subitarii), and the army - tumultuarius (subitarius) exercitus... Since the usual recruitment procedure took longer, the commander-in-chief of this army, the magistrate took out special banners from the Capitol: red, indicating recruitment for the infantry, and green for the cavalry, after which he traditionally announced: “Qui respublicam salvam vult, me sequatur” (“Who wants save the republic, let him follow me "). The military oath was also pronounced not individually, but together.

  Reward system

  Rome looked at the lands of the provinces it conquered as its own ancestral estates (praedia populi Romani), and almost all classes of the Roman population sought to derive their own benefit from this: nobility - governing provinces, horsemen - engaged in ransoms in them, ordinary citizens - serving in the legions and enriching themselves with war booty. Only the metropolitan proletariat, free from military service, did not participate in the common division; however, the state guaranteed to all its loyal subjects the sale of grain imported from the provinces at a lower price. This provision did not only apply to slaves and foreigners, nor did it apply to the free-spirited.

  The culture

  Politics, war, agriculture, the development of law (civil and sacred) and historiography were recognized as deeds worthy of a Roman, especially from the nobility. On this basis, the early culture of Rome took shape. Foreign influences, primarily Greek, penetrating through the Greek cities of the south of modern Italy, and then directly from Greece and Asia Minor, were perceived only insofar as they did not contradict the Roman system of values ​​or were processed in accordance with it. In turn, Roman culture during its heyday had a huge impact on neighboring peoples and on the subsequent development of Europe.

  The early Roman worldview was characterized by the feeling of being a free citizen with a sense of belonging to a civic community and the priority of state interests over personal ones, combined with conservatism, which consisted in following the mores and customs of their ancestors. In - centuries. BC NS. there was a departure from these attitudes and individualism intensified, the personality began to be opposed to the state, even some traditional ideals were rethought. As a result, in the era of the emperors, a new formula for governing Roman society was born - there should be plenty of bread and circuses. Well, a certain decline in morals among the crowd of townspeople has always been perceived by despotic rulers with a certain degree of favor.

  Language

  Latin language, the appearance of which is attributed to the middle of the 3rd millennium BC. NS. was the Italic branch of the Indo-European family of languages. In the process of the historical development of ancient Italy, Latin supplanted other Italic languages ​​and eventually took a dominant position in the western Mediterranean. At the beginning of the 1st millennium BC. NS. Latin was spoken by the population of the small region of Latium (lat. Latium), located in the west of the middle part of the Apennine Peninsula, along the lower course of the Tiber. The tribe that inhabited Latius was called Latins (lat. Latini), and its language was Latin. The center of this area was the city of Rome, after which the Italic tribes united around it began to call themselves the Romans (Latin Romans).

  There are several stages in the development of Latin:

  • Archaic Latin.
  • Classical Latin.
  • Postclassical Latin.
  • Late Latin.

  Religion

  Ancient Roman mythology in many aspects is close to Greek, up to the direct borrowing of individual myths. However, in the religious practice of the Romans, animistic superstitions associated with the worship of spirits also played an important role: geniuses, Penates, Lares, lemurs and mans. Also in ancient Rome, there were numerous colleges of priests.

  Although religion played a significant role in traditional ancient Roman society, by the 2nd century BC. NS. a significant part of the Roman elite was already indifferent to religion. In the 1st century BC. NS. Roman philosophers (most notably Titus Lucretius Carus and Mark Tullius Cicero) largely revise or question many of the traditional religious positions.

  Art, music, literature

  clothing

  Morals

  Same-sex relationships in ancient Roman society cannot be characterized in terms of modern Western culture. There are no words in Latin to denote concepts that correspond to today's concepts of heterosexuality or homosexuality. Any sexual relationship was characterized by bipolarity - an active, dominant, “masculine” role on the one hand and a passive, submissive, “feminine” role on the other.

  Kitchen

  The social evolution of Roman society was first studied by the German scientist G.B. Niebuhr. Ancient Roman life and life were based on developed family legislation and religious rituals.

  To make better use of daylight, the Romans usually got up very early, often around four in the morning, and after breakfast, they began to engage in public affairs. Like the Greeks, the Romans ate 3 times a day. Early in the morning - the first breakfast, around noon - the second, in the late afternoon - lunch.

  In the first centuries of the existence of Rome, the inhabitants of Italy ate mainly thick, steeply cooked porridge made from spelled, millet, barley or bean flour, but already at the dawn of Roman history, not only porridge was cooked in the household, but also bread cakes were baked. The culinary arts began to develop in the 3rd century. BC NS. and reached unprecedented heights under the empire.

  The science

  Roman science inherited a number of Greek studies, but unlike them (especially in the field of mathematics and mechanics) it was mainly of an applied nature. For this reason, it was the Roman numbering and the Julian calendar that received worldwide distribution. At the same time, its characteristic feature was the presentation of scientific issues in a literary and entertaining form. Jurisprudence and agricultural sciences reached a special flourishing, a large number of works were devoted to architecture and urban planning and military technology. The largest representatives of natural science were the encyclopedic scientists Guy Pliny Secundus the Elder, Mark Terentius Varro and Lucius Annei Seneca.

  Ancient Roman philosophy developed mainly in the wake of the Greek, with which it was largely associated. Stoicism is the most widespread in philosophy.

  Roman science has achieved remarkable success in the field of medicine. Among the outstanding physicians of Ancient Rome, one can note: Dioscorides, a pharmacologist and one of the founders of botany, Soranus of Ephesus, an obstetrician and pediatrician, Claudius Galen, a talented anatomist who discovered the functions of nerves and the brain.

  Encyclopedic treatises written during the Roman era remained the most important source of scientific knowledge for most of the Middle Ages.

  The legacy of ancient Rome

  Roman culture, with its developed ideas about the expediency of things and actions, about the duty of a person to himself and the state, about the importance of law and justice in the life of society, supplemented ancient Greek culture with its desire to understand the world, a developed sense of proportion, beauty, harmony, a pronounced game element ... Ancient culture, as a combination of these two cultures, became the basis of European civilization.

  The cultural heritage of Ancient Rome can be traced in scientific terminology, architecture, and literature. For a long time, Latin has been the language of international communication for all educated people in Europe. Until now, it is used in scientific terminology. On the basis of the Latin language in the former Roman possessions, the Romance languages ​​arose, which are spoken by the peoples of a large part of Europe. Among the most outstanding achievements of the Romans is the Roman law they created, which played a huge role in the further development of legal thought. It was in the Roman dominions that Christianity arose and then became the state religion - a religion that united all European peoples and greatly influenced the history of mankind.

  Historiography

  Interest in the study of Roman history arose, in addition to the works of Machiavelli, also during the Enlightenment in France.

  The first major work was the work of Edward Gibbon, "The History of the Decline and Collapse of the Roman Empire", which covered the period from the end of the II century to the fall of a fragment of the empire - Byzantium in 1453. Like Montesquieu, Gibbon appreciated the virtue of Roman citizens, at the same time, the disintegration of the empire according to him began already under Commodus, and Christianity became the catalyst for the collapse of the empire, undermining its foundations from the inside.

  Niebuhr became the founder of the critical movement and wrote the work "Roman History", where it is brought up to the First Punic War. Niebuhr attempted to establish how the Roman tradition arose. In his opinion, the Romans, like other peoples, had a historical epic, preserved mainly in noble families. Niebuhr paid some attention to ethnogenesis, considered from the angle of the formation of the Roman community.

  In the Napoleonic era, V. Durui's work "History of the Romans" appeared, emphasizing the then popular Caesarian period.

  A new historiographic milestone was opened by the work of Theodor Mommsen, one of the first major researchers of the Roman heritage. An important role was played by his voluminous work "Roman History", as well as "Roman State Law" and "Collection of Latin Inscriptions" ("Corpus inscriptionum Latinarum").

  Later came the work of another specialist, G. Ferrero - "The Greatness and Fall of Rome." The work of I. M. Grevs "Essays on the history of Roman land tenure, mainly in the era of the Empire" was published, where, for example, information appeared about the economy of Pomponius Atticus, one of the largest landowners of the end of the Republic, and the model of the average estate of the August era was considered the economy of Horace.

  This question was asked by the world chess champion Garry Kasparov. And he came to the conclusion that not everything is in order with the dates in ancient history: here and there insoluble contradictions arose. The objective analysis of an open-minded explorer of stone unturned leaves no trace of the official story to which we are accustomed. Simple logic proves that, most likely, no antique period in the development of mankind existed. There is no real evidence for this - some myths and dubious "documents", the original sources of which are unknown.

  It is interesting to study the rate of reproduction of the human race. For example, in England from the 15th to the 20th centuries, the population grew from 4 to 62 million. That is, a 15-fold increase in population in 500 years. In France, from the 17th to the 20th centuries, starting with the reign of Louis XIV, the population grew from 20 million to about 60 million. And this despite the fact that France took part in terrible wars: Napoleonic alone claimed about 3 million lives.

  This begs the question: what was the population in these provinces during the collapse of the Roman Empire in the IV-V centuries? The fertile Gallic provinces of the vast empire were densely populated. If the eastern and western parts together numbered about 20 million people (the minimum estimate), then simple logic dictates that the hordes of barbarians that swept the empire also had to number in the millions.

  This means that if we try to use an inverse geometric progression in our calculations, we get an irrational result. It turns out that the reproduction of people at some stage has ceased altogether, or even "negative growth" has begun somewhere.

  Attempts at logical explanations, such as that hygiene was inadequate, or references to epidemics are not convincing. According to historical documents, there was no real improvement in sanitary and hygienic conditions in the life of the population of Western Europe from the 5th to the 18th century. In addition, since the 15th century, wars with the use of firearms began, claiming many more lives.

  It is even more interesting to compare the population of the ancient world from the time of Pericles (5th century BC) and the emperor Trajan (2nd century AD). If we take the number of inhabitants in large cities and the number of armies as the basis for calculations, then we will face an insane rate of demographic growth. Of course, Greece under the auspices of Athens is incomparable with the world empire centered in Rome, but the proportions are still not respected. Judge for yourself, 15 thousand free Athenian citizens - and half a million Rome and Alexandria. On the one hand, the 1,500-strong rearguard of the united army of the Greek city-states, which included 300 famous Spartans, remains to cover the retreat of the main forces in a war where the existence of the Hellenes was at stake. On the other hand, 26 legions (!) Were kept by Rome in peacetime and were recruited without the introduction of universal military service. This is more than the Russian Empire was able to put up in 1812 to repel Napoleonic aggression.

  Another mystery. Let's look at the size of a person. We see pictures and descriptions of ancient Greek athletes. These are physically well-developed people, of large build. And then we see the armor of medieval knights, which fit only 15-year-old youths of the XX century. Against the background of ideas about the ancient powerful athleticism, this is very strange. It turns out a kind of sinusoid in the development of the muscles of the human body. Why did such a change suddenly take place?

  The further - the more oddities. In the piece of history we are testing, we find an absolutely incredible human urge to discover. Literally every ten years something happens, something is discovered. Continuous development. No "falling asleep for centuries" is observed. At the same time, in traditional ancient history, we find that a person seemed to be immersed in a centuries-old hibernation. There were prosperous ancient empires that froze at some point and did not develop further. Why?

  It is also incomprehensible that the rates of technical and cultural progress in the ancient world absolutely do not fit into the framework of human abilities for practical improvement.

  For example, Rome takes over everything from Greece, but nothing happens in the field of music. Although supposedly emperors, the nobility in every possible way encouraged the development of the arts. But everything froze on the same level, rather primitive. Music - no! It is unclear how such a sophisticated society could do without a sound recording system. As a result, no musical monuments have survived to us.

  Further, an even more mysterious paradox: the striking inability of ancient Rome to improve the types of weapons and tactics of military operations. The empire wages regular wars of conquest - but the Romans did not manage to forge steel and fought with short swords of low-grade iron. Ask historians what the ancient sculptor Phidias did with marble? An iron chisel will not give such a filigree result - hardened steel tools are needed. But, according to the official chronology, coal was first mined in England in the 11th century. Charcoal does not give a white heat, you need coal. If there is no white heat, then there is no steel either.

  According to ancient sources, the Roman cavalry did not have harness! There were reins, but stirrups appear only in the 8th century A.D. - and then chivalry arises. Meanwhile, the ancient Romans fought against the eastern peoples, famous equestrian masters. Crossbows and bows did not appear in Ancient Rome either. Moreover, many heroes of ancient Greek myths are excellent archers.

  Progress in the invention of new types of weapons begins only in the XIV-XV centuries. And since then it has not stopped. And before that, for many centuries, for some reason, nothing happened.

  It also seems strange that the Roman Empire became famous for its extensive network of roads and communications, but there were no geographical maps. Even more mysterious is the fact that ancient documents are completely silent about the banking system and commodity credit in ancient Rome. Meanwhile, trade in the empire - especially on the scale that we are told about - requires the emergence of credit institutions. It is interesting that, according to the official historical version, the banking system will appear in the Middle Ages in Italy: in Genoa, in Florence, in Milan.

  Another mystery of the ancient world. We know a lot about the scientists of Ancient Greece - Aristotle, Socrates, Plato, Archimedes, Heraclitus, Pythagoras, Euclid. But from about the 1st century BC, there has been a collapse. No more scientists! The development of science has completely stopped! It is strange that with an abundance of complex architectural structures, there was no good counting system in Rome. The one that was is not suitable for serious calculations. Try dividing large numbers into columns or calculating the volume of a complex geometric shape. But the Romans did some calculations. Moreover, they are quite complex. And what system of counting did the famous ancient Greek scientists Archimedes, Euclid, Ptolemy use? And why did the pragmatic Romans, who took over the best from the Greeks, ignored mathematics? Or the Greeks did not have such a system. But then how did they count? The Arabic medieval account appeared more than ten centuries after the creation of the fundamental works of the ancient Greek founders of mathematics and physics. It turns out an absolutely incredible time gap!

  Nothing is heard in the ancient world about chemical research. There were no chemists or alchemists. Why did alchemists appear only in the Middle Ages? Let's add a few words about anatomy and medicine. The works of Hippocrates have not reached us, and this is strange, because the emperors and kings needed medicine. For some reason, Homer's poems in the dark era of the Middle Ages have survived much better than priceless treatises on the healing of the human body.

  The inquisitive thought of the ancient genius for ten centuries could not come up with anything that would surpass the achievements of the Europeans, who had behind them a maximum of 300 years of progress of the Renaissance! What's the matter?

  There is a version that medieval authors simply invented the whole "ancient history" in the XV-XVI centuries. They took the everyday environment of their era and projected it into the past - on Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome. The life of the "ancient world" created by the imagination improved due to the fact that "the ancients had more of everything." But naturally, no innovations were invented either in weapons, or in science, or in everyday life, or in culture. No one was embarrassed by the fact that the 15th-16th centuries in official history were at the same level of development as the Roman Empire during the period of its greatest power.

  The daily life of the Roman Empire is described in some detail. But let's look at the everyday environment. Forks, knives, chairs, functional utensils - these household items are not available. And after all, feasts all over the world were rolled! I immediately remember that in the 16th century, the European nobility continued to eat with their hands and chomp loudly!

  The absence of ancient inscriptions with dates is also embarrassing. On the walls of numerous cathedrals, palaces, churches, there are only tablets with dates in the chronological system adopted today. You are told that this cathedral is 500 years old, but the plaque was nailed only in the 19th or 20th century. No old dates. Even scribbled by hand. In Western Europe, you will not find a single truly old building, on the walls of which there would be an inscription authentic to the announced year of completion of construction.

  Nevertheless, humanity unconditionally believes in the current panorama of world history. We are accustomed to considering ourselves a part of an infinitely ancient historical process, in which the Egyptian pharaohs and Chinese emperors, Greek philosophers and Roman gladiators comfortably settled down. This world is formed from children's books, school textbooks, masterpieces of world literature, reflected in films, commercials, Internet sites. A world in which everything is arranged on the shelves and there is an answer to every question. Most people prefer to get to know the past in cinemas or on TV. For them, Hollywood versions of significant historical events become reality.

  But in reality we have all the signs of a chronic, centuries-old falsification of facts. Based on ancient Greek myths, scientists have constructed seven centuries of the history of Ancient Greece. I had questions for a long time, but I did not dare to ask them aloud, until in 1996 I read the book "Empire" by Anatoly Fomenko. Then, for the first time, I questioned the entire official chronology. Much, mathematically calculated and predicted by Fomenko, is confirmed in reality.