Catalan language coverage map

Catalan language (self-named. català) belongs to the Occitan-Romance subgroup of the Romance languages ​​of the Indo-European family. It is spoken by about 11 million people in the so-called. Catalan lands in Spain (autonomous communities Catalonia, Valencia, Balearic Islands), France (department Eastern Pyrenees), Andorra and Italy(G. Alghero on the island of Sardinia).

The history of the formation of the Catalan language.

It is believed that the formation of an independent Catalan language began in the 9th century, during the Reconquista. The language originated from Vulgar Latin in the north of the Iberian Peninsula. In the late Middle Ages, Catalan was literary and prestigious.

In the first half of the 19th century, a resistance movement began to form, the so-called Renaissance ( Renaixença ). At first, it did not go beyond the literary movement, but over the course of a century it acquired political and national features.

Catalan is an inflectional language.

In the 20th century, General Franco, who came to power, completely banned the Catalan language in all spheres of public life. Only 8 years after the death of the dictator, in 1983 a law was passed "On linguistic normalization in Catalonia", which officially secured the status of Catalan as the second state language in the autonomous region of Catalonia.

Information about the dialects. The spread of the language.

• An independent dialect - "Majorquin" - the dialect of the Balearic Islands.
• In the Valencian Community, the local dialect of Catalan is called Valencian language. For a long time, there has been a debate about whether to consider Valencian an independent language or one of the dialects. Compromise opinion: "there is one language, which in Catalonia is called Catalan, and in Valencia - Valencia."

Allocate:

• East Catalan and West Catalan dialects. The east of Catalonia, the south of Catalan-speaking France, the Balearic Islands and Sardinia are classified as East Catalan dialects. Other areas of distribution of the Catalan language are classified as Western Catalan dialects. The main criterion for such a division into dialects is the pronunciation of unstressed O, e and a... In Western Catalan, these sounds are pronounced in the same way as they are transmitted in writing, while in East Catalan dialects O in unstressed position is pronounced as [u], and e and a- as weak English [ə].

Catalan has retained many features of the language in which the troubadours composed their songs and is very close to the Provencal, or Occitan language, which is still spoken in the south of France.

Catalan is an independent language, not a variant of Spanish.

Flag of the province of Catalonia

It is a mistake to think that since Catalan is the most widespread in Spain, it means that it once broke away from Spanish and changed over the centuries. This is not so: they descended from different ancestors (that is, from different dialects of Latin) and never crossed in their development. In addition, they were subjected to completely different foreign influences.

In the 8th century, the Iberian Peninsula was conquered by the Moors, and the Spanish-speaking territories remained under Muslim rule for seven long centuries. This could not but be reflected in the language, which acquired a solid stock of borrowings from Arabic. Catalonia was soon returned to the Christian world by the Franks, having conquered it from the Saracens, and the Gaulish influence on the Catalan language turned out to be so significant that many linguists attribute it not to the Ibero-Romance (like Spanish), but to the Gallo-Roman group (like French).

Linguistic features.

• The ultimate -d often pronounced voiceless: autoridat(‘Autoridad’), verdat(‘Verdad’), amistat(‘Amistad’) Madrit(‘Madrid’).
• The main differences in pronunciation - although the Catalan pronunciation resembles Spanish, but this is due to a long period of coexistence, and not to primordial features. There is no interdental in Catalan c (z), Spanish ll, but there is a hissing x, sonorous z, tz... There are quite strong differences in grammar, ranging from verb conjugation, ending with many forms of adverbs, prepositions, closer to Provençal and French. For example, in Spanish "please" - por favor, in French - s'il vous plaite, in Catalan - si us plau.
• In general, the pronunciation of the Catalan is more reminiscent of French - such consonants as J ("z"), Z ("z") and X ("w"), characteristic of the Catalan's speech, are generally absent in modern Spanish, but are available in French. as well as Portuguese and Galician.
• With a general grammatical structure close to Spanish, Catalan infinitives do not end in -er, -ar, -ir, but -e. For example, "sell": vender (Spanish) - vendre (cat. And French)

Where to learn Catalan.

In Catalonia itself on catala spoken everywhere ... with the exception of the capital. Of course, all Barcelonians own it, but precisely as an official one, and not colloquial. Thus, doctoral dissertations in Catalan are defended almost every day, but to hear in it, say, a street quarrel is almost unthinkable: the language of "tram squabbles" and everyday communication in Barcelona remains Spanish. It's a shame ...

It is a pity that we have almost no translation from Catalan, and many modern talented Catalan authors are unknown to us, although the province publishes more than 6 thousand books annually ... There is only one way out - to teach yourself.

In Moscow, Catalan is taught only at the romgerm of Moscow State University. In St. Petersburg - at the Faculty of Philology of St. Petersburg State University, along the way with basic Spanish. But in Barcelona - on every corner. For example, in language schools Inlingua Barcelona, BCN Languages, Barna House, Center d'estudis Adams, in the language centers of the University of Barcelona and the University Abat oliba... And in France, in the city of Perpignan, there is a whole Center for Catalan culture - Center Cultural Catala.

Learn foreign languages ​​on Skype at LingvaFlavor School

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Bring me, Father, Scarlet Flower ... Souvenirs from Spain.

Catalan(cat. català) belongs to the Romance languages ​​and has about 12 million native speakers. It is the official language of Andorra and the state language, along with Spanish, Catalunya, Comunitat Valenciana and the Balearic Islands. This language is also spoken in some areas of Aragon and Murcia, Roussillon (Rosselló) in southern France and Alghero (l'Alguer) on the island of Sardinia.

The language of Valencia is known as "Valencian" and, according to some linguists, is an independent language, although many still consider it a dialect of Catalan. According to the Valencian Academy of Languages ​​(Acadèmia Valenciana de la Llengua (AVL)), Catalan and Valencian are two names for the same language.

History

Catalan became an independent language during the X-XI centuries. In the XII century. Catalan began to appear in scientific, philosophical, financial, religious, legal and historical documentation. During this period of time, Latin and the Provencal dialect prevailed in fiction and philosophical literature.

After the War of the Spanish Succession (1705-1715), Philip V abolished all state institutions that existed at that time in Catalonia and introduced Spanish laws. The Catalan language has gone through various periods of prohibitions and repression.

In the XIX century. a period of economic, cultural and national revival began, known as the Renaissance (Renaixença). Catalan has been revived as a language of literary culture thanks to the Jocs Florals (poetic competition) and such prominent representatives as Jacint Verdaguer, Narcis Olier and Angel Guimera.

The Renaissance drew public attention to the lack of unity in the use of language (there was no single model of a generally accepted written language) and the need to develop spelling rules. The founding of the Institute for the Study of Catalonia (Institut d'Estudis Catalans) in 1907 led to the systematization of the Catalan language through the publication of Pumpeu Fabra's "Norms of Spelling" (Normes ortogràfiques) in 1913, the "Spelling Dictionary" (Diccionari ortogràfic) in 1917 and "The grammars of the Catalan language" in 1918

During the first thirty years of the XX century. Catalonia was going through a period of political passion, culminating in the partial revival of the political power of the Catalan Government (Generalitat) in the 1930s. During the existence of the Second Republic (1931-1939), the Catalan language regained its status as an official language, which it lost in the 18th century. However, a promising future was impeded by the civil war and its aftermath. The use of the Catalan language was popularly banned, and he had to confine himself to his native territory.

After the restoration of the institutions of democracy, the process of reviving the use of the Catalan language began. It is now the official language alongside Spanish in Catalonia and the Balearic Islands, and is widely used as the language of everyday communication throughout Catalonia, Valencia, Andorra and the Balearic Islands. Catalan is used as a teaching medium in many schools, as well as in the media and government offices.

Catalan alphabet

A a	B b	C c	Ç ç	D d	E e	F f	G g	H h
a	be	ce	ce trencada	de	e	efa	ge	hac
I i	J j	K k	L l	M m	N n	O o	P p	Q q
i	jota	ke	ela	ema	ena	o	pe	cu
R r	S s	T t	U u	V v	W w	X x	Y y	Z z
erre	esse	te	u	ve baixa	ve doble	ics, xeix	i grega	zeta

Phonetic transcription of the Catalan language

Vowels, diphthongs and triphthongs

Consonants

Notes:

c = [s] before i or e, but [k] elsewhere
g = before i or e but in different positions
gu = [g] before i or e, but in different positions
i = before vowels, but [i] elsewhere
I-I officially = but often pronounced [I]
u = before vowels, but [u] elsewhere
k, w and y are used exclusively in loan words

In Russian, there are two variants of pronunciation and spelling - katal O nskiy and katal A nskiy. In order not to get confused, here is the help from gramota.ru

CATALAN, adj.

1. Pertaining to Catalonia, Catalans associated with them.
2. Typical of the Catalans, typical of them and of Catalonia.
3. Owned by Catalonia, Catalans.
4. Created, inferred, etc. in Catalonia or Catalans.

CATALAN

1. Belonging to the Ibero-Romance group of the Indo-European family of languages ​​(about the Catalan language).

Thus, when it comes to language, it is preferable to speak "Catalan".

History

The Catalan language belongs to the group of Romance languages, is widespread in Spain in the autonomous region of Catalonia, in Valencia and the Balearic Islands and is the state language in these regions along with Spanish. The number of Catalan speakers is 7.8 million. This language has two groups of dialects: Eastern (Barcelona, ​​Balearic) and Western (Lleidanese, Valencian).

The first monuments of writing in the Catalan language date back to the 11th-12th centuries, from the middle of the 13th century. the literary language develops, since on the territory of Catalonia up to the middle of the 13th century. the literary language (especially in poetry) was Provencal. Structural closeness with Provencal has long hindered the separation of Catalan into an independent language: until the beginning of the 20th century. many considered it a dialect of Provençal.

Thanks to the work of the famous Catalan preacher, philosopher, poet and prose writer, author of 265 works by Raymond Llull (1233-1315) in the 14th century. the flowering of Catalan literature began. Catalan medieval literature gave Europe both poetry and numerous romances of chivalry. But already in the 15th century, Barcelona ceded its political and economic influence to Madrid, which turned into a long stagnation in culture. And after losing the nine-year war to Spain in 1714, Barcelona generally lost the status of an independent state formation, and therefore, the constitution and the official language.

A new round of development - a movement called the Renaissance - began only in the middle of the 19th century, on the crest of a wave of national identity experienced by many peoples of Europe. Poetry and drama in Catalan revived again, many of which called for the struggle for self-determination and statehood.

The modern language was formed as a result of the processing by the writers of the 19th and 20th centuries. language of classical medieval literature, based on the Barcelona dialect. There are also regional variants of the literary language (Valencian, Balearic) with minor differences in phonetics and morphology.

The Republic of Catalonia existed from 1932 to 1939. Then, after the victory of the nationalists in the Civil War, the years of dictatorship began in Spain, when the Catalan language was completely banned from use in all spheres of public life. Only after the death of General Franco was the partial, and in 1979 - full autonomy of Catalonia proclaimed in 1977, with the capital in Barcelona.

During the process of democratic restoration in 1983, the law "On linguistic normalization in Catalonia" was passed, which formalized the status of Catalan as the second state language in Catalonia. It provided for teaching in Catalan along with Spanish in both secondary and higher education, conducting office work at the local administration level, and using it in the media.

Catalan language today. Studying the Catalan language and culture in Russia and Spain

Currently, the Catalan language occupies a leading position in Catalonia, local newspapers are published in it, it is the language of local television and radio broadcasting, and is taught in schools and universities. There are many schools and courses for the study of Catalan as a foreign language. There is a certification system of the Government of Catalonia for the levels of proficiency in the Catalan language (beginner, intermediate and advanced).

In Moscow, the Catalan language can be studied at the Faculty of Philology of Moscow State University and at the Cervantes Institute. The Instituto Cervantes also has fiction in Catalan, children's and educational literature, dictionaries and textbooks of the Catalan language, feature films and audio recordings of popular artists. Cultural events related to the activities of Catalan writers, photographers and filmmakers are held.

Perhaps the most popular textbook of the Catalan language, which is used for teaching both in Russia and in Spain, is the textbook "Digui, Digui ...?" - Catalan language course for adult foreigners. This textbook is designed for beginners and intermediate levels, using a communicative methodology for teaching. Audio and video recordings of lessons are offered to the textbook, the material is presented in a lively and exciting way, sometimes even in the form of comics, the textbook is also provided with grammatical material.

Catalan is close to French and Spanish, so Catalan is easy to learn for students who know these two languages.

Here are some of the most common words and phrases in the Catalan language:

Russian	Catalan
Hey	Hola
thanks	Gràcies
Please (request)	Sisplau
sorry	Perdoni
Goodbye	Adeu
See you	Ja ens veurem
Good luck!	Que vagi bé!
I do not understand	No ho entenc
OK	Entesos
Do not know	No ho sé
Deal	D "acord

The main distinguishing features of the Catalan language

When planning a trip to any country, there comes a time when you need to learn minimal phrases in the local language, so as not to get lost in an unfamiliar environment, to be able to ask for help, and simply to cheer up the locals. After all, language is an integral part of every culture, and the efforts of tourists to express themselves in the local language are always highly appreciated, as it shows your interest in the country. Knowing Spanish will be very helpful in Barcelona. There are many in the city. However, since it is the capital of Catalonia, another official language - Catalan... Therefore, we decided to devote this article to a mini-lesson of the Catalan language, in which you can learn basic phrases in Catalan.

Catalonia went through hard times during the dictatorship, when the Catalan language was banned, and now many people are rooting for the establishment of Catalonia as an independent country. In the city, most of the signs, signs and names are in Catalan. Catalan language belongs to the group of Romance languages. It sounds like a mixture of Spanish and French. In addition to Catalonia, Catalan is spoken in the Balearic Islands and Valencia. In Barcelona you will be perfectly understood in Spanish, however, any local will break into a smile if you speak to him in Catalan, even if it is a simple “good afternoon”.

The minimum that is useful for any tourist to know:

• -Hola ("ola") - hello. As in Spanish.
• -Bon dia ("bon diya") - good afternoon.
• -Bona tarda ("bona tarda") - good evening.
• -Bona nit ("bona nit") - good night. Also means a "good night" greeting.
• -Adéu ("adeu") - goodbye, bye.
• -Fins després and fins ara - see you soon.
• Si us plau ("siusplow") - please. If you are offered something and you want to agree, you should use the phrase “Sí, si us plau” - yes, please. In case of refusal "no, gràcies" - no, thanks.
  Gràcies - thank you. Moltes gràcies - thank you very much. Sí ("si") - yes. No ("but") - no.
• Perdó ("perdo") - I beg your pardon. This word serves as an excuse, as a way to ask to repeat what was said, and as a way to attract attention.
• D'acord ("dacord") - good. Serves as an agreement.
• No parlo català - I don't speak Catalan.

in a cafe or restaurant:

• - La carta ("la karta") - menu, list of dishes.
• -Cervesa ("servesa") - beer.
• -Vi ("bi") - wine (if you do not specify which one, it means that you are asking for red).
• -Rosat ("ruzat") - pink.
• -Blanc ("blank") - white.
• -Aigua ("agua") - water.
• -Cafè ("cafe") - coffee.
• -Cafè sol ("cafe sol") - black coffee.
• -Cafè amb llet - coffee with milk.
• -Te ("te") - tea.
• -Cendrer - ashtray.

"Do you speak Catalan?" - "Yes a little"

The only state in the world in which Catalan is the official language is Andorra. In addition to this picturesque country in the heart of the Pyrenees, whose population is extremely small, Catalan coexists with Spanish in Catalonia, the Balearic Islands and Valencia (the total number of speakers is about 8.5 million people). However, there are many places where the Catalan language is not officially recognized, despite its active use: such is the situation in Aragon (105 settlements), in "Northern Catalonia" with the capital Perpignan (or in the Department of Eastern Pyrenees, according to the French territorial division), in Murcia and in Sardinia. In total, in total, the Catalan language is spoken by about 14 million people in 4 countries (Spain, Andorra, France, Italy).
The sociolinguistic status of the Catalan language varies from province to province. On the northern slope of the Pyrenees and in large cities (especially in Valencia and Alicante), Catalan is a minority language and is not very popular. At the same time, in Catalonia, on the islands and in the rural part of Valencia, it is the main language of communication, which also serves as a sign of national unity. It is curious that Catalan is one of the most used languages ​​on the Internet (at 26th place among the languages ​​of the world), in particular, it contains the bulk of Wikipedia articles intended for Spaniards (according to the University of Oxford).
It should be noted that not all Catalan-speaking population uses the name “Catalan language” - el català. The Catalan-speaking population of Valencia prefers the self-name "Valencian" (el valencià) and, for the most part, share the false belief that Valencian and Catalan are two different languages. Unfortunately, this division, which is in no way justified by linguistics, is actively used by political parties and movements that benefit from the principle of "divide and rule".

Dialects

Catalan has far fewer dialects than, say, Spanish or Basque - although dialectal differences can be quite significant, especially in Menorca, whose dialect is not always understood by "continental" Catalans. Traditionally, it is believed that Catalan is divided into two main dialects: Eastern (Tarragona, Barcelona, ​​Girona, Perpigna and the Balearic Islands) and Western (Andorra, Leida, Tortosa, Aragon and Valencia). Their differences are manifested in different planes:

• Phonetics: in eastern dialects there is a reduction of the vowels [a], [e] and [ԑ] (open e) into a neutral sound [ә] of medium rise, as well as a reduction of closed [o] and open [ᴐ] in [u]. This reduction is not observed in Western dialects.
• Verb morphology: first person opposition parle (western) / parlo (eastern), patisc / pateixo and the opposition of the suffix –ix (zap.) / –eix (east). Subjunctive mood: que parle (zap.) / que parli (east).
• Demonstrative pronouns and adverbs of place: in the Valencian dialect, the three-term division of space according to the degree of proximity is preserved - adverbs açò, això, allò and pronouns este, eixe, aquell(proximity to the speaker, to the interlocutor, to a third party), while in other regions it disappears - adverbs això, allò and pronouns aquest, aquell corresponds to the Russian division into close and distant.
• Vocabulary: numerous differences, for example espill, roig, melic(zap.) / mirall, vermell, llombrígol(east).

Dialectal differences often appear locally and rather bizarrely. So, in the Balearic Islands - and for some reason in Tarben and Cadaqués - the definite article is used es / sa dating back to latin IPSU / IPSA: es llibre, s'oli, sa dona, ses taules... This is the only case in the entire group of Romance languages ​​other than Sardinian.
It is curious to note that the first person singular. present time. a verb in different dialects can take 6 different endings (5 vowels + zero ending). Of the grammatical features, it is worth highlighting the "peripheral past tense", which is formed using the verb anar (to go): so the form va parlar means not at all "will speak" (cf. French. va parler or isp. va a hablar), but "he spoke." Along with this unique past tense for the Romance group, synthetic forms coexist, which, however, are used only in book speech and in certain regions of Valencia.

History

Since the Paleolithic period, tribes of non-Indo-European origin lived on the Iberian Peninsula: in particular, the Iberians and Proto-Basques (in the Pyrenees). Later the east coast was colonized by the Greeks and Carthaginians. In 218 BC. Roman troops invade the peninsula and subjugate it to the Roman Empire. Their reign lasted for about 7 centuries. A direct consequence of this domination was the Romanization of the peninsula, divided into three provinces: Bettica, Lusitania and Tarracona (including present-day Catalonia and Valencia).
The Catalan language can be considered Gallo-Romance, since all linguistic innovations coming from Rome to Gaul were assimilated by Catalan: in this sense, it is a direct relative of Occitan and French, and is in many ways similar to Italian. Examples of these innovations in folk Latin are - arribar, bullir, cama, formatge, llit, malalt, menjar, parlar, por, taula, trobar, voler- can be easily contrasted with the vocabulary of the Ibero-Romance group llegar, hervir, pierna, queso, cama, enfermo, comer, hablar, miedo, mesa, encontrar / hallar, querer dating back to classical Latin. However, the influence of Spanish did not pass without a trace, and the indigenous Catalan vocabulary in many cases gave way to Spanish borrowings: cf. outdated frare, sor, jaquir, ociure, orb, pus with modern germà, germana, deixar, matar, cec, més... This tendency is especially pronounced in Western dialects.
The invasion of the Visigothic tribes in the 5th century did not significantly change the linguistic picture, since the conquerors were assimilating and adopting folk Latin. Therefore, the Germanic superstratum is reduced to individual words (often military vocabulary and onomastics): blanc, blau, bru, esquena, anca, fresc, estona, gaire, guerra, guanyar, Bernat, Guillem, Arnau, Llofriu, Guimerà, ...
In the VIII century, Arab tribes landed on the peninsula and in a matter of months they conquered most of modern Spain. In 732, they lose the battle to Charlemagne, and the French capture the north of the peninsula. In the 9th century, the Catalan principalities gain independence and rally around Barcelona. We can say that it was there that the Catalan language was born in close connection with Occitan (at that time, practically no different from Catalan). Commercial ties with the south of modern France support his European aspiration, while modern Valencia is under the rule of the Arabs and adopts a rather significant lexical layer from the Arabic. Subsequently, this vocabulary, associated primarily with agriculture, will enter Catalan and from there will spread to other European languages: albergínia, albercoc, carxofa, garrofa, taronja, safrà, sucre, sofre, cotó, magatzem, duana.
In the XII century, the Catalan-Aragonese kingdom (in modern terms, the confederation of Catalonia and Aragon) begins to expand, seeks access to the sea, captures adjacent areas: Tarragona (1128), Leida (1238) and, a century later, Mallorca (1229) and Valencia ( 1238). In the XIV century, the Catalans' aggressive policy leads to Sardinia and Sicily, to Naples and Athens.
The first literary monuments of Catalonia were four chronicles - some of the best examples in all of Europe - la Crònica de Jaume I or Libre dels feits, la Crònica de Bernat Desclot, la Crònica de Ramon Muntaner and la Crònica de Pere el Cerimoniós. From the XII-XIII centuries. preserved the poetry of the Catalan troubadours, and at the end of the XIII - beginning of the XIV centuries. noteworthy is the figure of the genius thinker, inventor and poet Ramon Llull.
The political flourishing of Catalonia was accompanied by the flourishing of Catalan literature: the 15th century, called the "golden age", gave birth to a whole galaxy of genius writers and poets - Bernat Metge, Ausiàs March, Jordi de Sant Jordi, Joan Roís de Corella, Jaume Roig, Joanot Martorell. Marturel became famous for writing a wonderful knightly novel Tirant lo blanc (Tyrant White, translated into Russian) - the only book that Don Quixote does not burn.
After centuries of prosperity, the unequal alliance of Aragon with Castile in 1479 gradually changes the geopolitical situation and leads to the pushing back of the Catalan language until its official prohibition at the state level afterwards. The expulsion of the Arabs in 1609 led to massive migrations of the population and was the first step to consolidate the boundaries of the Catalan language (in particular, Murcia is settled by immigrants from the Hispanic regions and loses the Catalan language). The expulsion of Catalan from the official sphere accelerated after the War of Succession to the throne: after capturing Aragon, the Bourbons issued a decree banning the Catalan language (Decret de la Nova Planta) in 1707 in Valencia and in 1716 in Barcelona. Napoleon conquered Catalonia in 1808 and for some time annexed it to France. By the end of the 19th century, it was becoming fashionable among the aristocracy to speak Spanish. In this regard, the Catalan language is pushed aside into the sphere of informal and everyday communication of the middle and lower classes, the prestige of the language drops sharply. At the same time, a nationalist movement, the Renaixença, emerges among the growing bourgeoisie. In 1859 in Barcelona (and decades later - in Valencia), literary competitions characteristic of the XIV century - els Jocs Florals (flower games), were resurrected, designed, in particular, to raise the prestige of the Catalan language. But only by the end of the 19th century, a new wave of remarkable writers and poets began to create in the Catalan language: we are talking about Catalan modernism (Santiago Rusiñol, Joan Maragall, Eugeni d´Ors), a trend that was especially clearly manifested in architecture (Antoni Gaudí). In 1913, Pompeu Fabra published a huge work on the study and normalization of the Catalan language, which later served as the basis for the creation of modern grammar. At the beginning of the twentieth century, a new galaxy of remarkable authors appeared: Mercé Rodoreda, Josep Pla, Salvador Espriu and many others, who were subsequently forced to emigrate during the years of Francoism.
In the twentieth century, the growing industrialization of Catalonia led to a huge increase in immigration, mainly from poor Hispanic areas. The families of immigrants in many cases tried to preserve their native language, which led to a decrease in the role of Catalan in large cities - Barcelona, ​​Valencia and, especially, Alicante. But the main blow to the language was dealt by the dictatorship of General Franco, who for 35 years tried to mercilessly suppress all manifestations of a thousand-year-old culture. Not admitted to the media, the Catalan language gradually lost its position, despite the fact that families continued to speak their native, albeit forbidden, language. Whole generations of Catalans were forced to study in non-native Spanish, leading to the virtual extinction of monolinguals. This situation, however, changed with the adoption of the 1978 Constitution, which recognized Catalan as a legal medium of communication. At the moment, three educational systems coexist in Catalan schools: mainly in Catalan (Spanish as a foreign language), mainly in Spanish (Catalan as a foreign language) and half and half.
Unfortunately, the struggle to support the Catalan language often takes on a purely political bias, and this is abused by autonomous governments. It should be noted that the linguistic situation in Valencia differs in this sense from Catalonia, which seeks to obtain greater rights of self-government and even, possibly, secede from Spain. However, for many Catalan-speaking residents of Spain, their status as “Spaniards” is imposed and undesirable, as is the obligation to know and speak Spanish.

• Amell Guiomar (1994): Breu història dels catalans, Barcelona, ​​Generalitat de Catalunya.
• Borja de Riquer (dir.) (1999): Cronologia dels Països Catalans. història i societat, economia, cultura, ciència, Barcelona, ​​Pòrtic.
• Casanova, Emili i Abelard Saragossà (2010): El valenciano: nombre, historia, situación sociolingüística y características básicas, València, Ed. Denes.
• Ferrando, Antoni i Miquel Nicolàs (2005): Història de la llengua catalana, Barcelona, ​​Pòrtic, Editorial UOC.
• Veny, Joan (1978): Els parlars catalans, Palma, Ed. Raixa.