In Russian literature of the 18th century, the first independent direction began to take shape - classicism. Classicism developed on the basis of examples of ancient literature and art of the Renaissance. The development of Russian literature in the 18th century was greatly influenced by Peter's reforms, as well as the school of European enlightenment.

Vasily Kirillovich Trediakovsky made a significant contribution to the development of literature of the 18th century. He was a wonderful poet and philologist of his time. He formulated the basic principles of versification in the Russian language.

His principle of syllabic-tonic versification was the alternation of stressed and unstressed syllables in a line. The syllabic-tonic principle of versification, formulated back in the 18th century, is still the main method of versification in the Russian language.

Trediakovsky was a great connoisseur of European poetry and translated foreign authors. Thanks to him, the first fictional novel with exclusively secular themes appeared in Russia. It was a translation of the work “Ride to the City of Love” by the French author Paul Talman.

A.P. Sumarokov was also a great man of the 18th century. The genres of tragedy and comedy developed in his work. Sumarokov’s dramaturgy contributed to the awakening of human dignity and highest moral ideals in people. Antioch Cantemir was noted in the satirical works of Russian literature of the 18th century. He was a wonderful satirist, making fun of nobles, drunkenness and self-interest. In the second half of the 18th century, the search for new forms began. Classicism ceased to meet the needs of society.

The largest poet in Russian literature of the 18th century was Gavrila Romanovich Derzhavin. His work destroyed the framework of classicism and introduced lively colloquial speech into the literary style. Derzhavin was a wonderful poet, a thinking person, a poet-philosopher.

At the end of the 18th century, a literary movement called sentimentalism emerged. Sentimentalism is aimed at exploring the inner world of a person, personality psychology, experiences and emotions. The heyday of Russian sentimentalism in Russian literature of the 18th century was the works of Radishchev and Karamzin. Karamzin, in the story “Poor Liza,” expressed interesting things that became a bold revelation for Russian society of the 18th century.

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The most comprehensive reference table of major dates and events Russian history of the 18th century. This table is convenient for schoolchildren and applicants to use for self-study, in preparation for tests, exams and the Unified State Exam in history.

Culture

Many historical lists generally cover achievements made during a particular period. The list below is also a kind of achievement, but not the way we imagine it. This is a slightly different progress made by people in the 18th century.

10. Personal hygiene

Today we place a high value on personal hygiene, but until the early 18th century, a person might never be immersed in water in his entire life. Many people believed that bathing was unhealthy, and that “soaking” your body in water, especially hot water, allowed various kinds of diseases and infections to enter the body. Even if a person still decided to take a bath, he did it in clothes! This habit continued until the end of the 19th century.

9. Deodorant

Until the 1880s, people didn't even think about creating deodorant, despite the fact that most of them smelled very bad most of the time, but they did not experience any discomfort from it. The rich tried to mask the bad smell with a lot of perfume, however, today everyone knows that this method does not work.

It is worth noting that back in the 9th century, the polymath Ziryab proposed the idea of ​​​​creating a deodorant for armpits, but it did not take root. Until 1888, nothing like this existed. It was this year that mass production of the first deodorants began, which had phenomenal success in the West. These deodorants are still available today under the Mama brand.

8. Grooming

Women did not take care of their body hair. In the Western world, body hair removal was not a common practice until the 1920s. There are certainly some countries where women still don't do anything about their body hair. However, there is no need to talk about this now.

7. Toilets

Houses during that period of time smelled foul of natural human excrement. There was no running water then, and most people relieved themselves in a pot, which could be left until someone decided to throw its contents out the nearest window. Later, pots were preserved in some houses, but open toilets had already been created. However, even in the Victorian era, potties were used as an emergency toilet at night.

6. Toilet paper

Toilet paper was invented at the end of the 18th century, and until then people used improvised means. The rich had the luxury of wiping themselves with scraps of cloth. The poor used old rags, leaves, moss and... their hands! Even the ancient Romans lived better - for these purposes they used cloth wrapped around a stick, and then immersed it in a bucket of water. The picture shows a portable toilet from the 18th century.

5. "Bed" insects

Infestations of bed bugs and insects became rampant in the 18th century. They were considered the norm of life. Unfortunately, these insects have certainly been responsible for the spread of numerous diseases. They remained a constant problem until modern times. In the Victorian era, women were encouraged to wipe down the bottom of their beds with kerosene to kill any unwanted guests.

4. Time of critical days

Women during that period had several “models” of behavior. Some used a piece of fabric, and the same one more than once; moreover, these scraps were dried in a visible place at the same time as other things, without any embarrassment. Therefore, it was better not to look over the fence to the neighbors. However, there were also women who did not use anything and allowed gravity to “do its thing.”

3. Manure, manure and more manure

In big cities, the streets smelled of a mixture of manure, human excrement and rotting plants. If you've ever wondered where the gentleman's tradition of walking closer to the edge of the road came from, don't dig too deep, it also came about to protect your lady from the splashes of passing cars. The next time you see a man in a movie gallantly throwing his cloak on the ground for his lady to pass, remember: it's likely that he's not covering up a puddle at all.

2. Oral hygiene

There was more to dental hygiene than using a toothpick and wiping your gums with a tissue. Women tended to have poorer teeth than men due to the loss of vitamins during pregnancy.

For poor people, everything happened exactly like this, but for the wealthy, the Italian company Marvis began producing its toothpaste back in the early 1700s (they continue to produce it to this day). But frankly, people were more confused about buying meat than they were interested in buying Italian toothpaste. It was completely unimportant.

1. Mercury

Absolutely every person at that time was infected with lice. But fear not, as they have chosen an amazing cure for it: mercury! In the 18th century, Europe had a love affair with mercury. They ate it, rubbed it into their skin, became crazy and died. On the “positive” side, it killed the lice first!

XVIII A CENTURY IN WORLD HISTORY

Section 4.2. XVIII century in world history:

Mishina I.A., Zharova L.N. Europe on the path of modernization

social and spiritual life. Character traits

Age of Enlightenment………………………………………….1

West and East in the 18th century……………………………………9

Mishina I.A., Zharova L.N."Golden Age" of European

absolutism…………………………………………………………….15

I.A. Mishina

L.N. Zharova

Europe is on the path to modernizing social and spiritual life. Characteristics of the Age of Enlightenment

XV-XVII centuries in Western Europe they are called the Renaissance. However, objectively this era should be characterized as the era of Transition, because it is a bridge to the system of social relations and culture of the New Age. It was during this era that the prerequisites for bourgeois social relations were laid, the relationship between church and state changed, and the worldview of humanism was formed as the basis of a new secular consciousness. The formation of the characteristic features of the modern era was fully realized in the 18th century.

The 18th century in the life of the peoples of Europe and America is a time of greatest cultural, socio-economic and political changes. In historical science, the modern era is usually associated with the establishment of bourgeois relations in Western Europe. Indeed, this is an important socio-economic characteristic of this era. But in modern times, simultaneously with this process, other global processes took place that engulfed the structure of civilization as a whole. The emergence of the New Age in Western Europe meant a civilizational shift: the destruction of the foundations of traditional European civilization and the establishment of a new one. This shift is called modernization.

Modernization is a complex, multifaceted process that took place in Europe over a century and a half and covered all spheres of society. In production, modernization meant industrialization- ever-increasing use of machines. In the social sphere, modernization is closely related to urbanization- the unprecedented growth of cities, which led to their predominant position in the economic life of society. In the political sphere, modernization meant democratization political structures, laying the preconditions for the formation of civil society and the rule of law. In the spiritual sphere, modernization is associated with secularization- liberation of all spheres of public and personal life from the tutelage of religion and the church, their secularization, as well as the intensive development of literacy, education, scientific knowledge about nature and society.

All these inextricably linked processes have changed a person’s emotional and psychological attitudes and mentality. The spirit of traditionalism is giving way to attitudes towards change and development. A man of traditional civilization was confident in the stability of the world around him. This world was perceived by him as something unchangeable, existing according to the originally given Divine laws. Man of the New Age believes it is possible to know the laws of nature and society and, on the basis of this knowledge, change nature and society in accordance with his desires and needs.

State power and the social structure of society are also deprived of divine sanction. They are interpreted as a human product and are subject to change if necessary. It is no coincidence that the New Age is an era of social revolutions, conscious attempts to forcibly reorganize public life. In general, we can say that New Time created a New Man. The man of the New Age, the modernized man, is a mobile personality who quickly adapts to changes occurring in the environment.

The ideological basis for the modernization of public life in modern times was the ideology of the Enlightenment. XVIII century in Europe also called The Age of Enlightenment. Figures of the Enlightenment left a deep mark on philosophy, science, art, literature and politics. They developed a new worldview designed to liberate human thought, free it from the framework of medieval traditionalism.

The philosophical basis of the worldview of the Enlightenment was rationalism. Enlightenment ideologists, reflecting the views and needs of the bourgeoisie in its struggle against feudalism and its spiritual support of the Catholic Church, considered reason as the most important characteristic of a person, a prerequisite and the most vivid manifestation of all his other qualities: freedom, initiative, activity, etc. Man, as a rational being, from the point of view of the Enlightenment, is called upon to reorganize society on reasonable grounds. On this basis, the right of people to social revolution was declared. An essential feature of the ideology of the Enlightenment was noted by F. Engels: “The great people who in France enlightened their heads for the approaching revolution acted in an extremely revolutionary manner. They did not recognize any external authorities of any kind. Religion, understanding of nature, political system - everything had to be subjected to the most merciless criticism, everything had to appear before the court of reason and either justify its existence or abandon it, the thinking mind became the only measure of everything that exists” (Marx K., Engels F. . Soch., T.20.

In terms of civilization, Europe of the 18th century was still an integral entity. The peoples of Europe differed in their level of economic development, political organization, and the nature of their culture. Therefore, the ideology of the Enlightenment in each country differed in its national characteristics.

In its most striking, classical forms, the ideology of the Enlightenment developed in France. French Enlightenment of the 18th century. had a significant impact not only on its own country, but also on a number of other countries. French literature and the French language became fashionable in Europe, and France became the center of all European intellectual life.

The largest representatives of the French Enlightenment were: Voltaire (François Marie Arouet), J.-J. Rousseau, C. Montesquieu, P. A. Holbach, C. A. Helvetius, D. Diderot.

Social and political life of France in the 18th century. characterized by large remnants of feudalism. In the struggle with the old aristocracy, the enlighteners could not rely on public opinion, on the government, which was hostile to them. In France they did not have such influence in society as in England and Scotland; they were a kind of “renegades.”

Most prominent figures of the French Enlightenment were persecuted for their beliefs. Denis Diderot was imprisoned in the Château de Vincennes (royal prison), Voltaire in the Bastille, Helvetius was forced to renounce his book “On the Mind.” For censorship reasons, the printing of the famous Encyclopedia, which was published in separate volumes from 1751 to 1772, was repeatedly suspended.

Constant conflicts with the authorities gave French educators a reputation as radicals. For all their radicalism, French enlighteners showed moderation and caution when one of the basic principles on which European statehood was based - the principle of monarchism - was brought up for discussion.

In France, the idea of ​​separation of powers into legislative, executive and judicial was developed by Charles Montesquieu (1689 - 1755). Studying the reasons for the emergence of a particular state system, he argued that the legislation of the country depends on the form of government. He considered the principle of “separation of powers” ​​to be the main means of ensuring the rule of law. Montesquieu believed that the “spirit of laws” of a particular people is determined by objective prerequisites: climate, soil, territory, religion, population, forms of economic activity, etc.

The conflicts between French enlighteners and the Catholic Church were explained by its ideological intransigence and dogmatism, and this excluded the possibility of compromise.

The characteristic features of the Enlightenment, its problems and the very human type of the enlightener: philosopher, writer, public figure - were most clearly embodied in the work and in the very life of Voltaire (1694-1778). His name became, as it were, a symbol of the era, giving the name to a whole ideological movement on a European scale - Voltairianism."

Historical works occupy a large place in Voltaire’s work: “The History of Charles XII” (1731), “The Age of Louis XIV” (1751), “Russia under Peter the Great” (1759). In the works of Voltaire, the political antagonist of Charles XII is Peter III, a monarch-reformer and educator. For Voltaire, the independent policy of Peter, who limited the powers of the church to purely religious matters, came to the fore. In his book Essay on the Manners and Spirit of Nations, Voltaire wrote: “Every man is shaped by his age; very few rise above the morals of their time.” He, Voltaire, was the way the 18th century created him, and he, Voltaire, was among those enlighteners who rose above him.

Some French educators hoped for cooperation with the authorities in solving specific problems of governing the country. Among them stood out a group of physiocratic economists (from the Greek words “physics” - nature and “kratos” - power), led by Francois Quesnay and Anne Robert Turgot.

The awareness of the unattainability of the goals of the Enlightenment through peaceful, evolutionary means prompted many of them to join the irreconcilable opposition. Their protest took the form of atheism, sharp criticism of religion and the church, characteristic of materialist philosophers - Rousseau, Diderot, Holbach, Helvetius, etc.

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712 - 1778) in his treatise “On Social Speech...” (1762) substantiated the right of the people to overthrow absolutism. He wrote: “Every law, if the people have not directly approved it, is invalid. If the English people consider themselves free, then they are sorely mistaken. He is free only during the elections of members of parliament: as soon as they are elected, he is a slave, he is nothing. In ancient republics and even monarchies, the people were never represented; the word itself was unknown.

The epochal reign of Peter I, as well as his numerous reforms aimed at Europeanization and the eradication of medieval remnants in everyday life and politics, had a huge impact on the way of life of all classes of the empire.

Various innovations, actively introduced into the everyday life and customs of Russians in the 18th century, gave a strong impetus to the transformation of Russia into an enlightened European state.

Reforms of Peter I

Peter I, like Catherine II, who replaced him on the throne, considered his main task to be introducing women to secular life and accustoming the upper classes of Russian society to the rules of etiquette. For this purpose, special instructions and guidelines were created; young nobles were taught the rules of court etiquette and went to study in Western countries, from where they returned inspired by the desire to make the people of Russia enlightened and more modern. Basically, the changes affected the secular way of life remained unchanged - the head of the family was a man, the rest of the family members were obliged to obey him.

The life and customs of the 18th century in Russia came into sharp conflict with innovations, because absolutism, which had reached its peak, as well as feudal-serf relations did not allow the plans for Europeanization to be implemented painlessly and quickly. In addition, there was a clear contrast between the lives of the wealthy classes and

Court life in the 18th century

The life and customs of the royal court in the second half of the 18th century were distinguished by unprecedented luxury, surprising even foreigners. The influence of Western trends was increasingly felt: tutors, hairdressers, and milliners appeared in Moscow and St. Petersburg; French became compulsory to study; A special fashion was introduced for ladies who came to the court.

Innovations that appeared in Paris were necessarily adopted by the Russian nobility. looked like a theatrical performance - decorous bows and curtsies created a keen sense of pretense.

Over time, the theater gained great popularity. During this period, the first Russian playwrights appeared (Dmitrievsky, Sumarokov).

Interest in French literature is growing. Representatives of the aristocracy are paying increasing attention to education and the development of a multifaceted personality - this becomes a kind of sign of good taste.

In the 30s - 40s of the 18th century, during the reign of Anna Ioannovna, one of the popular entertainments, in addition to chess and checkers, was playing cards, which had previously been considered indecent.

Life and customs of the 18th century in Russia: the life of nobles

The population of the Russian Empire consisted of several classes.

The nobles of large cities, especially St. Petersburg and Moscow, were in the most advantageous position: material well-being and high position in society allowed them to lead an idle lifestyle, devoting all their time to organizing and attending social events.

Close attention was paid to houses, the arrangement of which was noticeably influenced by Western traditions.

The possessions of the aristocracy were distinguished by luxury and sophistication: large halls, tastefully furnished with European furniture, huge chandeliers with candles, rich libraries with books by Western authors - all this was supposed to show a sense of taste and confirm the nobility of the family. The spacious rooms of the houses allowed the owners to organize crowded balls and social receptions.

The role of education in the 18th century

Life and customs of the second half of the 18th century were even more closely connected with the influence of Western culture on Russia: aristocratic salons became fashionable, where debates about politics, art, literature raged, and debates on philosophical topics took place. The French language gained great popularity, which the children of nobles were taught from childhood by specially hired foreign teachers. Upon reaching the age of 15-17, teenagers were sent to closed educational institutions: boys were taught here girls - the rules of good manners, the ability to play various musical instruments, and the basics of family life.

The Europeanization of life and customs of the urban population was of great importance for the development of the entire country. Innovations in art, architecture, food, and clothing quickly took root in the homes of the nobility. Intertwined with old Russian habits and traditions, they determined the life and customs of the 18th century in Russia.

At the same time, innovations did not spread throughout the country, but covered only its most developed regions, once again emphasizing the gap between the wealthy and the poor.

Life of provincial nobles

Unlike the capital's nobles, representatives of the provincial nobility lived more modestly, although they tried with all their might to resemble the more prosperous aristocracy. At times, this desire from the outside looked quite cartoonish. If the metropolitan nobility lived off their huge estates and the thousands of serfs working on them, then the families of provincial cities and villages received their main income from taxing peasants and income from their small farms. The noble estate was a similarity to the houses of the capital's nobility, but with a significant difference - numerous outbuildings were located next to the house.

The level of education of provincial nobles was very low, training was mainly limited to the basics of grammar and arithmetic. Men spent their leisure time going hunting, and women gossiped about court life and fashion without having a reliable idea about it.

The owners of rural estates were closely connected with the peasants, who served as workers and servants in their houses. Therefore, the rural nobility was much closer to the commoners than the metropolitan aristocrats. In addition, poorly educated nobles, as well as peasants, often found themselves far from the innovations being introduced, and if they tried to keep up with fashion, it turned out to be more comical than elegant.

Peasants: life and customs of the 18th century in Russia

The lowest class of the Russian Empire, the serfs, had the hardest time of all.

Working six days a week for the landowner did not leave the peasant time to organize his daily life. They had to cultivate their own plots of land on holidays and weekends, because the peasant families had many children, and they had to somehow feed them. Constant employment and a lack of free time and money are associated with the simple life of the peasants: wooden huts, rough interiors, meager food and simple clothing. However, all this did not stop them from inventing entertainment: on major holidays, mass games were held, round dances were held, and songs were sung.

The children of peasants, without receiving any education, repeated the fate of their parents, also becoming courtyard servants and servants on noble estates.

The influence of the West on the development of Russia

The life and customs of the Russian people at the end of the 18th century were for the most part completely influenced by the trends of the Western world. Despite the stability and ossification of old Russian traditions, the trends of developed countries gradually entered the life of the population of the Russian Empire, making its wealthy part more educated and literate. This fact is confirmed by the emergence of various institutions, in the service of which were people who had already received a certain level of education (for example, city hospitals).

Cultural development and the gradual Europeanization of the population testify quite clearly to the history of Russia. Life and customs in the 18th century, modified thanks to the enlightenment policies of Peter I, marked the beginning of the global cultural development of Russia and its people.