By value in the linguistic literature, no.

Vinogradov V.V. identified 8 discharges of particles:

1. Reinforcing-restrictive, or excretory particles: only, only, though.
2. Accessory particles: too, also.
3. Defining particles: precisely, genuinely, exactly.
4. Pointing particles: here, there, this.
5. Indefinite particles: something, something, something.
6. Quantitative particles: almost, exactly, exactly.
7. Negative particles: not and neither.
8. Modal-verb particles: if only, yes, if only, if only.

Shansky N.M. and Tikhonov A.N. distinguish four categories of particles by meaning: semantic, modal, emotionally expressive, formative.

Sense particles

Semantic particles express different semantic shades of meanings.

Subdivided into several subgroups:

1. Pointing particles. They point to objects and phenomena of the external world: here, there, this, it, in.

• Here front entrance.
• (N. A. Nekrasov)
• Who this is came?
• It of course it's easy to say.

2. Definitive-clarifying, or identifying particles. Specify individual significant words in the sentence: exactly, exactly, exactly, almost, genuinely, just.

• to me just here and it is necessary.
• it exactly that house?

3. Excretory and restrictive particles. With their help, there is a logical selection of words or phrases: only, only, only, perhaps only, although, at least, at least, everything, exclusively, uniquely.

• it only Start.
• You at least call.

To semantic particles, according to Shansky N.M. and Tikhonov A.N., there are also amplifying particles acting in the function of selection: even, (even), but, after all, already (already), well, not, yet, then, simply, directly, positively, definitely, decisively.

• All this simply little things, maybe ...
• (J. Gordon Byron)
• Even and do not think!

Modal particles

Modal particles express an attitude towards the validity of a statement..

There are several subgroups:

1. Affirmative particles: yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, yes, definitely, how.

• to me definitely like the way he thinks.

2. Negative particles: no, no, no, not at all, not at all.

• In the sky nor clouds.

3. Interrogative particles: is it, is it, really, how, what, or what, but, yes.

• Is it can you do this?
• Really is everything behind?

4. Comparative particles: like, like, like, like, like, like, like.

• She like has changed.
• Exactly you didn't know.

5. Particles used to convey someone else's speech: they say (Old Russian. Child "says" + say), they say (said), -de, ostensibly.

• And if I see- de that the execution is small for him,
• I’ll hang all the judges around the table.
• (I.A.Krylov)
• Allow me to leave,
• Say , case dear,
• Like, since a local resident,
• The yard is just a stone's throw away.
• (A. T. Tvardovsky)
• So tell me: Arkady, say , Ivanovich Svidrigailov bows.
• (F.M.Dostoevsky)

Emotionally Expressive Particles

Emotionally expressive particles enhance the expressiveness of an emotional statement: what the, well, where there, how, like this, where, where there, what is there, so and so, here.

• Well what the neck, what the eyes!
• (I.A.Krylov)
• Where you compete with me,
• With me, with Balda himself?
• (A.S. Pushkin)

Shaping particles

Shaping particles are used to form surreal(a particle would) and: yes, let it be, let it be, yes, let it go.

• Let's compliment each other.
• (B. Okudzhava)
• I wanted would live and die in Paris,
• If b there was no such land - Moscow.
• (V.V. Mayakovsky)

Babaytseva V.V. and Chesnokova L.D. include here the words most, more and less, which are used to form analytical forms of degrees of comparison of adjectives. In addition, following Vinogradov V.V., they refer to the form-generating particles as something, something, something, something.

What is a particle in Russian? Previously, particles meant all service parts of speech. In the XIX century. A. V. Dobiash, a representative of the Kharkov linguistic school, began to single out particles in a separate category, which was the beginning of a narrow approach to the question of particles. VV Vinogradov also devoted his works to their research.

Indicative particles in Russian are included in the category. In order to learn how to correctly highlight examples of indicating particles in a sentence, it is not enough to learn this list, it is necessary to correctly determine the semantic relations within a phrase or sentence.

Particle as a separate part of speech

In modern morphology, a particle is a service part of speech, which carries an additional semantic, evaluative or emotional meaning of a word, phrase or sentence, and can also serve to form some forms of a word.

By themselves, particles do not express lexical meaning, but they can be homonymous with some significant words.

Compare:

1. She has not arrived yet (not yet - adverb). When else is she coming? (also a particle)
2. The summer was cold (it was - a verb). Was gone, but returned (it was - a particle).

The main difference between particles and prepositions and conjunctions is their inability to express grammatical relations. They are related to the rest of the service words by immutability and the absence of a syntactic role (that is, they are not members of sentences). However, it is worth noting that the word "yes" as an affirmative particle, and the word "no" as a negative, no, can become independent indivisible sentences. But you should not confuse the particle "no" and the negative word "no", which is used in impersonal sentences. For example: "No, just listen to how she sings!" (no - particle). "I have no time" (no - negative word). During parsing, the particle can be selected along with the main word on which it depends, or not at all.

Particle types depending on their composition

According to their composition, particles are divided into simple and composite. Simple ones consist of one word (whether, whether, the same), and compound ones - from two (rarely more) words (that would, nevertheless, hardly). Composite, in turn, can be dismembered, when in a sentence it is possible to separate a particle in other words.

1. I would like to go to Moscow.
2. I wish I could go to Moscow.

And indivisible, when the separation of a particle in other words is impossible. The phraseologized particles, those combinations of service words, the semantic connection between which has now lost its original meaning (no other than that and behold, whether the case and others) are also classified as indivisible.

Particle functions

In spoken and written speech, particles perform the following functions of expression:

• incentive, subjunctiveness, convention, desirability;
• subjective-modal characteristics and assessments;
• purpose, questioning, affirmation or denial;
• actions or states depending on its course in time, its completeness or incompleteness, the result of its implementation.

Particle discharges

In accordance with the functions performed, all particles are divided into categories:

1. Form-forming (let, yes, let’s, and so on). Used to form the imperative and conditional mood (let him run, he would run).
2. Negative (neither water, nor bread; does not bring, not at all funny).
3. Expressing a sign (action, state) depending on its course in time, its completeness or incompleteness, the result of its implementation.
4. Modal particles. They carry additional semantic connotations or express feelings.

Modal particle types

The group of modal particles is quite extensive and can be divided into several types:

1. Pointing particles (here, there).
2. Interrogative particles (perhaps, really).
3. Refinement particles (exactly).
4. Excretory-restrictive particles (just, just, if only).
5. Amplifying particles (even, after all, after all).
6. Exclamation particles (like, what for, well, right).
7. Particles expressing doubt (hardly, hardly).
8. Affirmative particles (yes, yes).
9. Particles expressing mitigation to the claim (s).

Pointing particles

The discharge of a particular particle can only be defined in context, since many of them are homonymous. Therefore, it is necessary to know what values ​​the particles of each discharge have. Indicative particles are those that indicate objects, actions and phenomena of the surrounding reality, as well as connect and indicate words. The most common examples of this type: this, here, there, it, vernacular - in, some others. According to some studies, a post-positive particle is also adjacent to the demonstrative particles - the same in combinations of the type: at the same time, in the same place, the same, in the same place where it is combined with pronouns by the method of agglutination. Examples of pointing particles: "This is my house", "There is my garden", "What kind of song is this sounding?"

Some features of pointing particles

The specifics of the use of pointer particles can be seen on the example of the pointer particle - out. The fact is that in the process of using this particle in various contexts, there is a shift in emphasis from it. For example, in the sentences: "There he goes" and "There it is," the intonation difference is clearly traced.

More clearly, you can trace the relationship of the remaining categories of particles with the indexes in the table.

Particles are often used both in oral and written speech, therefore, to use them correctly, you need to be able to determine their meaning and rank. To train this skill, you can look for examples of pointing particles or other categories in works of art during daily reading.

Particles do not have lexical meanings (and this is different from the significant parts of speech) and do not express grammatical relations between words and sentences (and this is different from the service parts of speech).

Particles are:

Amplifying (but, even, then, and, no, after all, and others.)

Restrictive (only, only, etc.)

Pointers (here, there, this)

Interrogative (whether, really, really, really, a)

Exclamation points (what, like, etc.)

Negative (not, not at all, far from, not at all)

Form-forming particles, which serve to form word forms and new words, occupy an intermediate position between service words and prefixes and suffixes:

1) particles would, let, let it be, yes, -ka, it was, serving to express moods or shades of moods in verbs;

2) undefined particles: something, something, something;

3) negative particle "not" serves not only to express negation, but also to form words with the opposite meaning. In this case, it acts as a prefix:

friend - foe, cheerful - unhappy, clever - stupid.

Separate Particle Spelling

1) Particles whether (b), same (f), whether (e) are written separately:

I would have read it, if only, here, which one, however, however, hardly, hardly.

The rule does not apply to those cases when the specified particles are part of the word: so that, also, too, really, or and etc.

2) Particles after all, there, here, even, they say are written separately:

so in fact, over there, like that, even he; brought, they say.

Hyphenated Particles

1) Particles are written with a hyphen -de, -ka, some- (coy-), (-kas - dial.), -something, -s, -tka, -tco, -that:

you-de, she-de, n-ka, nat-ka, look, some, some-something, someone, some, from somewhere, yes-s, well-tka, look- maybe, somewhere, sometime, something.

Particle -de(colloquial) is used in the transmission of someone else's speech, as well as in the meaning of the verb says (say) and in the meaning of the particles "say", "they say":

And if I see that the penalty is small for him, I will immediately hang all the judges around the table.

My compatriot turned to the commander at a halt: so and so - let me leave, they say, a dear case, they say, since a local resident is within easy reach.

2) Particle say(colloquial) was formed by the merger of two words: de and say.

3) Particle -with(made from the word sir) gives a tinge of servility, servility:

Chatsky. Lured by honors and nobility?

Molchalin. No, sir, everyone has their own talent ...

Chatsky. You?

Molchalin. Two-s: moderation and accuracy.

If between the particle ko- (koi-) and the pronoun there is a preposition, then the whole combination is written apart:

from someone, on something, from someone, from someone with someone.

4) Particle -so("nevertheless", "nevertheless", "nevertheless", "indeed", "in the end") is written with a hyphen:

after the verbs - persuaded, did appear;

after adverbs - surely, for a long time, again, again;

after particles - after all, pretty much, really, downright.

In other cases, the particle is still written separately:

The secretary, although he felt his weak dissatisfaction, nevertheless was glad to have such old women in the district's assets.

But although the temptation was great, I still managed to overcome myself.

5) Particle -then is added with a hyphen to pronouns and adverbs both to express ambiguity and to give the expression an emotional coloring:

And why did your heart go bad?

Note 1... Separately, a combination is written like that ("namely") before listing homogeneous members:

In mixed forests, a variety of trees are found, such as: birch, aspen, cedar, pine.

Notice 2... If the particle "-that" is inside a complex word, written with a hyphen, then the hyphen is placed before the particle, and after it is omitted:

Tie up crosswise (compare: crosswise);

Exactly exactly, but that's not the point (compare: exactly).

Note 3... If a particle that is written with a hyphen is after another particle, then the hyphen is not written:

all the same, somewhere else; with whom, they say, it does not happen like this (compare: after all, with whom, they say, it doesn’t happen).

Exception: before the particle -with a hyphen is saved: Will you have a bite, sir?

Particles "not" and "no" - in the next post.

Particle- one of the service parts of speech. She brings additional shades of meaning to the sentence.into words, phrases and sentences,and can also form word forms.The main role of particles (general grammatical meaning) is to add additional nuances to the meanings of other words, groups of words or sentences. Particles clarify, highlight, strengthen those words that are necessary for a more accurate expression of the content: « Already the sky breathed in autumn, Already less often the sun shone.» ( Pushkin A.S.) Already- particle with amplifying value.

Particles appeared later than other parts of speech. By origin, particles are associated with different parts of speech: with adverbs ( just, just, barely, really, right and etc.); with verbs ( let it, let it go, let it be, it would, because, you see and etc.); with unions (a, yes, and, but and etc.); with pronouns ( everything, it, what for, then, this, yourself etc.), with interjections ( out, well and etc.). Some particles are not associated with other parts of speech by origin: here, whether, -ka and etc.

There are few particles in Russian. In terms of frequency of use, they are in the first hundred of the most used words (as well as prepositions, conjunctions and some pronouns). This hundred of the most frequent words includes 11 particles ( no, no, no, no, no, no, no, no, no, no, no, after all, ).

In their structure and functions, the particles are close to adverbs, conjunctions and interjections.

Particles differ from the significant parts of speech in that they do not have lexical meanings, therefore particles are not members of the sentence, but can be part of the members of the sentence. Particles differ from prepositions and conjunctions in that they do not express grammatical relations between words and sentences, i.e. a particle never connects anything.

When parsing the particle is highlighted along with the word to which it refers or is not highlighted at all.

In the science of the Russian language, there is no consensus on the classification of particles. Classifications may differ from one author to another.

Particles are divided into 3 categories - semantic, negative and formative.
Forming particles include come on, yes, come on, would, b, it happened, let, let... Unlike semantic particles, form-forming particles are part of the verb form and the same member of the sentence as the verb: I would not know if he had not told.

Particle- one of the service parts of speech. It brings additional shades of meaning to the sentence, and can also form the forms of words.

Shaping particles: let, let it be, yes, let’s - form together with the verb a form of imperative mood, for example: let them run, let’s put up, let there be peace.

Particle would forms the conditional mood of the verb: I would like, I would say, I would go.

Particles that introduce different semantic shades are subdivided into

affirmative(yes, yes, yes, yes, yes),

negative(no, no),

interrogative(is it really, is it, is it, is it, is it),

comparative(like, like, like, like, like, like, like),

amplifying(even, still, after all, already, everything, nevertheless, simply, directly),

indicative(there, this, here),

clarifying(exactly, just, truly, exactly),

excretory-restrictive(only, only, even, only, exclusively),

exclamation(what, what, how, well, after all),

doubting(hardly, hardly).

Semantic and negative particles are presented below in the form of a table.

Particles must be distinguished from interjections Oh, oh, oh, oh etc., used to express an intensifying shade, which (unlike interjections) are not highlighted with commas (and are not accented).

PARTICLES

Compound particles are divided into two groups.

1) Non-separable particles: a then (- Not afraid? - A then afraid!; Let spend the night? - A then not let); without Togo (Human he and without Togo silent, a here and at all closed... Polev .; Once wait, without Togo already we are late); was O b(simple) ( Was O b to me not stay, a to leave home!); v row whether; Total-just (Time Total-just hour); all the same; lo and behold and(colloquial) ( Waited-waited, lo and behold and asleep); far not (far not sure v success; far not gorgeous); divi would(simple) ( Divi would a business knew, a then after all ignoramus!); before what (Good before what Forest! Before what you tired!); good would; if would (If would not war!); yet would (You not touch. - Yet would you touched!; Chorus O NS catch! - Yet would not good!); and there is(simple) (- Not admitted, it is seen? - Not admitted and there is... Bazhov; - Take a look, guys, Pica! - Pica and there is... Fad.); and So (Not be angry, I am and So repent; Why his money, at him many and So); and then (On rink and then not let; Saw for a long time, and then glimpse; Talk with him. - AND then I'll talk); how there is(simple) ( Everything how there is you right said... Bazhov; - Frozen? - How there is froze); how the same ; how once (Came how once in time; I'm afraid I am service: how once under a responsibility you will get... Turg .); how So (- Farewell. - How So Farewell?); how-then; where how (Where how funny!); OK would; on what (On what cunning, a and then wrong); no way No ; hardly whether ; by no means not (by no means not gorgeous); simply-just (He simply-just laughs above us); So-still (So-still and not appeared?); So already (- Tobacco at me the whole. - So already and the whole?); then whether not (That whether not life!); then-then (That-then glad!; That-then I am look he calmed down); there the same (There the same from funny: Said what-then I am: he started to laugh out loud... Mushroom.; Boy, a there the same argues); already and (Sami made. - Already and themselves?; it disease. - Already and disease!); grab and (Bye were going, grab and rain went); NS O would (NS O would he guessed to call!); what f (- Let's go to? - What the same, let's go to; I AM agree, what f); what whether (Call, what whether?; Help what whether!; What whether you deaf?); phraseological particles: not otherwise (how ) (Not otherwise how storm To evening will gather), not then what (to ), No (Togo ) to (What fur coat rotted away! No to to think: where-then barinova fur coat? Necr .); then whether a business (Silly ordered Ivan Ilyich; then whether a business we with you... L. Tolst.); Togo (and) look (Togo and look will die; will be forgotten Togo look), Togo and wait(simple) ( Stove Togo and wait will fall down... Bazhov.); Togo and Look (what ) (After all already too much many lynx; Togo and Look, what break neck! Gogol ); exactly-v-exactly ; what nor (on ) there is(simple) ( it his what nor on there is Darling song).

2) Dismembered particles: here would (Here would rain!; Here rain would!); here and (Here you and friend!; Here to you and result!; You his believed? Here and believe after of this people!); here So (Here So orders!; Here this is So orders!; Here at US garden So garden!; Here made friends So made friends!); barely not (barely not late; barely head not smashed); barely whether not (Barely whether he not first v life lied); how not (How not understand!; How to me the road not know!); how would not (How would rain not went); only would (Only rain would not It was!); few not(simple) ( V bell became to call, few not cut off... Ven .; From fear even few on land not fell... Fishing line.); let be would (Let be myself sang would!); quicker would (Quicker would Spring!; Spring would quicker!); So and (So and blows peace; So he me and not learned); only would (Only not to be late would!) only and (Only and conversation, what O trip; Only O trip and conversation); though would (Though not grumbled would!); a little (It was ) not (a little leg not broke); a little whether not (A little whether he now not big chief became). Always dismembered particles not whether (Not relax whether US?), not the same (Not spend the night the same here!). Phraseologized particles : No-No and (Yes and) (No-No Yes and will come in to visit; No-No grandfather and will remember); what per (What this is per news?; What at you per character!); what from (Togo , what ) (What to me from his promises!; What now from Togo, what he returned?).

Note. It is necessary to distinguish from compound particles the various, easily arising and easily disintegrating complexes, which are characteristic primarily of modal particles, grouping around a simple particle; for example: already - already and, Well already, So already, already and... the same; how - Yes how, Well how, how the same, Yes how the same, Well how the same; like - like would, like how, like and, like how would; see about this §.

DISCHARGES PARTICLES ON FUNCTIONS

Particle nor expresses negation or in the very structure of an uncommon sentence ( No souls; No sound; No the slightest hopes; No step back!; No with places!), or when spreading a negative sentence, combining the meaning of negation with the meaning. gain ( We not heard nor sound) or with the mean. union enumeration ( For you No nor letters, nor parcels, nor telegrams). In a particle nor there is an element of meaning of completeness of absence or categorical denial.

For negative particles and their use, see the chapter "Negation in the structure of a simple sentence and during its distribution" in the section "Syntax. Simple sentence".

Particles such as used to, it happens, see, say, look, Look, go and a number of others, with their intonational isolation, they come closer with introductory words(see the section "Syntax. Simple sentence").

In the language, there are certain rules and tendencies for the use of certain particles with the words of certain lexico-semantic groups; positional constraints apply for many particles. These phenomena are described in the chapter "Means of Formation and Expression of Subjective-Modal Values" in the "Syntax. Simple Sentence" section.

§. According to their composition, interjections are divided into primitive and non-primitive.

Antiderivatives include interjections that in modern language have no connection with any of the significant parts of speech, such as a, yeah, ah, ay, Oh, ba, brr, scatter, gay, her-her, and, their, on, but, Well, O, Wow, Oh, Oh, Whoa, bye, Ugh, at, Alas, beehive-liu, uh, uh, fi, frr, Ugh, Ha, hee, NS, chick, NS, Hey, eh, ehm.

Note. Such interjections in most cases originate from emotional shouts, exclamations, as well as exclamations and sounds accompanying the body's reflexes to external stimuli.

Onomatopoeia are also antiderivatives, such as agu, heh-heh, Ha-Ha-Ha, hee-hee-hee, NS-NS-NS, ya-ya; woof-woof, yoke-th, carr-carr, cluck-tah-tah, meow, mu-at, frrk (snort); breakpoint, boo, crumb, ding-ding, ek, drip, tra-that-that, fuck-tah-tah, slap, click.

An important feature of primitive interjections is the presence among them of a certain number of words containing sounds and sound combinations that are rare or even unusual for the Russian language: such are, for example, brr, um, ding-ding, Whoa, Ugh, ya-ya.

Non-primitive interjections are a group of words, in varying degrees correlative with words or forms of one or another significant part of speech. Among the non-primitive interjections associated with with nouns, include words priests, God, lord, God, Devil, Mother, creator, save(outdated), creator, heck... A significant number of non-primitive interjections are associated with the verb: give it up, will, see(from see), Hello(those), sorry(those), see(from see), or(from Pali), go-cloth(simple), think, to think and to think only, please, have mercy, tell, tovs(from get ready), vhl(from kusi), enough... Single interjections related with pronouns, adverbs, particles or conjunctions: won(simple), then-then, eva(simple), eq, eka; get out, Down with, full, away, mf, tsh, cs, NS-NS(last four of quiet); already(simple), but... Inseparable or weakly segmented combinations of a primitive interjection with a particle or pronoun are also adjacent to this: Yes already, on you (here), Well already, Well Yes, Oh-whether as well as connections Well and Well and her-the same-her.

Notable place among non-primitive interjections are occupied by stable phrases and phraseological units: priests-Sveta, God my, God righteous, God right, God God my, God sorry (sorry God), God save me (save me the God), God save, God bless, God have mercy, glory god, the devil with two, heck take it, heck take, what per heck, go f you, tell on mercy, I am you, here you on, here you once, here So So, here then-then and it (then-then and it-then), here this is Yes, how would not So, so that you.

Into a special group among non-primitive interjections highlighted verbal interjections(interjection verbs, verb-interjection forms) type twirl, lo and behold, swing-swing, morgue, dive (dive with run up v the river), jump, skip, knock, sense, tyk, hap, grab, whip, swark, sniff, crack (All of a sudden what-then: fucking! Czech.) And so on., Formally and functionally coinciding with the primitive onomatopoeia of the type boom, crash, fat, clap, click, somersault... All of them denote frequent, abrupt or impetuous movements and can serve as a model for occasional neoplasms.

All vocal (invocative) interjections formed from the common names of the corresponding pets are non-primitive: kitty-kitty, duck-duck, body-body, chick-chick.

Unlike primitive interjections, non-primitive interjections are a growing group of words. The main sources of replenishment here are evaluative-characterizing nouns of the type sorrow, trouble, death, fear, horror, lid, tobacco, pipe, skiff, pipes, abyss, devilry(here also - stable combinations of the type here So thing, here So cranberry, here So room), as well as verb forms with the mean. incentives: wait a minute, wait, let's, get down.

The class of interjections also includes a number borrowed words: let's go, Hello, amba, apport, rear, hu, basta, bis, Bravo, down, isi, guard, kush, march, merci, pass, saw, stop, tubo, Hurrah, sabbath, rough.

§. By its semantic functions interjections fall into three groups; these are interjections serving the areas of 1) emotions and emotional assessments, 2) expression of will, and 3) etiquette (greetings, wishes, gratitude, apologies). The division of interjections according to semantic functions does not coincide with their division according to the methods of formation.

Interjections serving the realm of emotions, are divided into interjections, the semantic functions of which are 1) specialized (unambiguous) and 2) non-specialized (ambiguous, diffuse).

Interjections with specialized semantic functions include: ah-ah-ah, ba, God save, the God with you, Bravo, brrr, won(simple), here those cross, here those Christ, here you n a, here you once, here So So, um, lord with you, Yes Well, Devil, her, her-god, her-the same-her, her right(outdated), yet what, and-and-and (and-and full), how would not So, how the same, n a- go, n a you (here), Well Yes (Well Yes, how the same), Well and Well, Well already, but, Oh-whether, Oh, go f you, think, have mercy, tell (tell on mercy), glory god, then-then (here then-then, then-then and it-then), bye, Ugh, Alas, f-fe, fi, frr, Ugh, Ha, NS-heh, hee, NS, already(simple), save me the God, Hurrah, heck, heck-those what, what per heck, the devil with two, so that you, now(in pronunciation - right now), eva, eq, eka, eh, ehma... Most of these interjections express negative emotions: contempt, disdain, ridicule, disgust, annoyance, reproach, censure, threat, protest, condemnation, irritation, fear, upset, confusion, discontent, distrust, challenge, disapproving or extreme surprise, confusion, regret , oath assurance, indignation, grief, longing, sadness, pain. Words expressing positive emotions are rare among interjections with semantically unambiguous functions: Bravo(delight, admiration), glory god(relief), Hurrah(jubilation). The sphere of negative emotions has an incomparably greater number of specialized means of expression than the sphere of positive emotions.

To interjections with semantically diffuse functions relate: a, yeah, ah, Oh, so hot, priests, God my, here this is Yes, God, see, their, Mother, Well, O, Wow, Oh, with mind get off, horror, heck take, heck take it... All of them convey a state of excitement, which predetermines the possibility of using them to express the most diverse, often directly mutually exclusive feelings and sensations. Relying on the content and general emotional coloring of speech and with the support of other means - both linguistic (intonation) and extra-linguistic (gesture, facial expressions) - the same interjection can express approval and censure, fear and joy, admiration and contempt, fear and determination. In narrowing and clarifying the semantic functions of such interjections, the role of intonation is extremely important, especially its aspects such as tone, rhythm, timbre, strength and duration of sound. Great opportunities for semantic differentiations are also opened by changing the sound appearance of interjections by doubling and tripling them, repetition of final syllables ( Wow-th, ege-ge, eche-heh), intonation variation of vowels ( and-and-their, woo, oo) and other ways of expressive-emotional expression.

Note. There is an assumption that the emotional coloring of primitive interjections and the degree of their semantic diffuseness are to some extent predetermined by differences in the method of forming vowels and in the phonetic quality of consonants combined with them. So, according to the observations of Acad. V. V. Vinogradov, interjections with vowels of the upper rise | and |, | y | less overloaded with meanings than interjections with vowels | a | and | o |, and for interjections ending in | j |, the range of meanings is narrower than for interjections ending in | x |.

Almost all interjections that serve the sphere of emotions are vividly expressive. Nevertheless, for some interjections, the expressiveness can be even more enhanced. In some cases, an increase in expressiveness is achieved by means of word formation (by adding suffixes of subjective assessment: Oh-Oh-nuts, ohohonies, ohohoshie, cm. § ); often used method of complication of interjection pronoun you, with this use, it almost completely loses its lexical meaning and intonationally merges with the interjection: Oh you, Oh you, uh you, their you, see you, eh you, Ugh you, Ugh you, Well you... A common means of enhancing expression is the joint use of several - more often two - interjections: Ugh heck, Oh God my, O-O priests.

Onomatopoeia are close to emotional interjections ( Ha-Ha-Ha, hee-hee-hee, ya-ya, meow, tyaf-tyaf; breakpoint, click, bam) and verb-interjection forms such as jump, skip, dac-scratch.

§. Interjections serving the sphere of expression of will, express commands and calls to people or animals. A significant part of them are borrowings from other languages ​​and belong to the professional speech of the military, hunters, sailors, builders, trainers: Ugh, face, alle, anchor, apport, rear, down, isi, kush, saw, tubo, rough, myna, vira, half-tundra... In addition to these narrowly special and little-used words, this semantic sphere includes interjections calling for help ( guard), prompting the response ( ay, Hello, Hey), requiring silence, attention, consent ( tsh, shhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhhby, NS-NS, wsh, chu, chur), prompting the implementation or termination of any actions: let's go, hu, give it up, scatter, have taken, go ahead, Well the same (Yes Well the same), shoo, march, on, but, Well, go down(outdated), whoop, beehive-liu, vhl, chick, sabbath.

Due to its natural proximity to command. incl. interjections, functioning in the sphere of expression of will, reveal a number of specific verbal features. Some of them are capable of accepting the postfix - those (on - here, Well - Well those, full - fullness, let's go - aydate, give it up - give it up, chick - tsytste, go ahead - go for it, scatter - scatter) and to the connection with the particle - ka (on - on-ka - here-ka - on-cloth, Well - Well-ka - chickpea-ka - Well-cloth, let's go - aydate-ka). An even greater number of such interjections show the ability for syntactic connections with certain (more often pronouns) forms: chur me, hu his, Well you, chick (scatter) from here, march home, let's go on the river, on Apple... Interjections ay, Hello, Hey, on, but (n-but-O), Well, Whoa, beehive-liu can be used when referring to: Ay, Zhenya, where you?

Note. The property of syntactic compatibility with other words is also possessed by individual interjections related to the emotional sphere itself: Alas to me, so hot to me, already you, Ugh on him, Ugh to me on them; Ugh for US his ruin It was would! (Letters.).

A special kind of interjections expressing the expression of will are words close to appeals that serve to call animals ( kitty-kitty, chick-chick), and interjections used when communicating with young children: bye-bye, agu(and motivated by him agunyushki, agushenka), buy-buy, baiu-buy (cradles-baiu, bainki), here is baby chur-chura.

§. To interjections, serving the field of etiquette, include words such as Hello(those), before goodbye, thanks, thank you, thank you(those) (deprecated), sorry(obsolete, poet.), goodbye(those), sorry(those), sorry(those), please, Total good, Total(colloquial), my reverence, Hey(colloquial), great(simple), while(colloquial). All of them contain a certain amount of significance that brings them closer to the words of other parts of speech. Many interjections of this group are able to develop secondary meanings and function as means of expressive-emotional expression of surprise or disagreement, rebuff, opposition.

§. The participation of interjections in the syntactic organization of the text is manifested in different ways. Interjections can function as the equivalent of a sentence (1), a modal component of a sentence (2), a member of a sentence (3). The syntactic activity of different groups of interjections is different; not all of these functions are equivalent: some of them correspond to the nature of the interjections themselves, others are secondary and only reflect the nature of the syntactic interaction of interjections with words of other parts of speech.

1 TO performing the function of the equivalent of a sentence all interjections are capable. An interjection has the force of a statement and in this case is characterized by an independent intonation: " NS", - said we with Peter Ivanovich(Gogol); From surprise could to pronounce only one sound: "O! "(Cupr.);" Ehma!" - contemptuously exclaimed Lunev(Bitter.).

2) The function of the modal component of the sentence can be realized in two ways. In some cases, the interjection is used as an introductory word: Patience starts few-little by little burst, but here - upa! - is heard the bell(Czech.); Slipped AND bam! - stretched out(Block). In other cases, the modal function of the interjection is inseparable from the general meaning of the sentence, and the interjection is inseparable from the construction of the sentence itself: Oh and the beauty!, Oh she snake!; Eh you living-bee!; Oh the years-the years!; Oh already these to me relatives!; Eh and song!; Oh how nice!; Oh how it's a pity!; Oh how ashamed!; Ouch how pricked!; See how swears!; Uh which splendor!: Eh which blizzard!; Well (and) freezing!; Well (and) eccentric!; Ek where threw!; Ek his flooded! Only emotional interjections, mainly primitives, are capable of performing the latter function.

With the modal function of interjections, the function of intensification (strengthening) of a qualitative or quantitative feature, expressed by any significant part of speech, is connected. When used in the accentuating function, the interjection is placed directly before the word denoting the very sign (1), or it is placed in the syntactic position of the dependent sentence (2): 1) Have! which sparkling, wonderful, unfamiliar earth distance! (Gogol); Have! which screech! Hair - stubble, eyes - how at ox(Gogol); Through courtesy sneaked uh which nimble agility female character! (Gogol); Is running.. at!.. running shooter, Is burning under kicking grass! (Spark.). 2) V antiquity wedding was found not v comparison our. Aunt my grandfather, used to, will tell - lyuli only! (Gogol); Here and last year was such bad harvest, what God keep! (Gogol); So hurry, what on-go! (I. Nikitin); A already what per guys, only Well! (Letters.); V that time to was chief provinces such beast, what at!!! (S.-S.).

3) Sentence member function in most cases is not the intrinsic syntactic function of interjections. The possibility of using an interjection in the position of one or another component of a sentence usually arises when an interjection replaces one or another word form: She all Oh Yes Oh; Character at him Oh-Oh-Oh; The people - God God my!; Affairs - Alas and Oh!; Income - Well!; Said would "Oh", Yes not orders the God(old last); Cheating century, a lives all eq(old post.).

The exception is onomatopoeia such as bam, bam, jingle, click and verb interjections like jump, skip, sense, grab, for which the function of the sentence member - the predicate - is the predominant syntactic function. In doing so, they usually receive context-specific values ​​of the past. time. owls. type and are likened to verbs of a one-act mode of action such as to jump, slam, fuck, snatch(cm. § ): All of a sudden hear scream and horse top... Drove up To porch. I AM hurry up by the door clap AND hid per stove(Cannon.); ( Captain Kopeikin) ran It was per her on his piece of wood, trick-trick followed by(Gogol); Provoked kiddie - He almost the whole the truth boo ! (Nekr.); cat Vaska attitude O lived AND jump To spindle(Nekr.); By the door clap , left(G. Uspensky); Outweighed, you know whether, across railing, a railings - crunch ! Crunched, you know whether... (Czech.); By tram crushed? - in a whisper asked Poplavsky. - Clean! - shouted Koroviev... I AM was witness. Believe - once - head away! Right leg crunch , in half! Left - crunch , in half! (Bulg.).

The use of the group of words under consideration in the context of the present or future tense, as well as their use in other meanings, is also possible, but occurs quite rarely; for example: [Skalozub:] But tightly plucked what-then new rules. Chin followed his: he service all of a sudden left, V the village books became read... [Famusov:] Here youth!... - read!... a after grab! (Mushroom.); Is sitting on river with fishing rod Yes myself myself then on nose, That on forehead - bam Yes bam ! (Nekr.); How jump up! Directly To master - Hvam pencil from hands(Nekr.); You know, who on you bounce, - Stepka Karnaushkin. He you will give, you - break(A. Tolstoy); V of these lower reaches nights - delight. Light dawns. Foam on shallows shorkh-shorkh Black sea(Pastern.); The whole night he writes nonsense. Take a nap - and skip with sofa(Pastern.). In the meaning of the incentive mood: How to be? To avenge we must... Strike!.. I AM let. Not So whether, friend? Quicker - clap AND again right, holy... (Nekr.).

Scientific interpretation of words like clap, grab is ambiguous. There is a tradition to regard them as special verb forms denoting "instantaneous", "ultra-instantaneous" or "suddenly-instantaneous" action in the past. This point of view is based on the fact of the regular use of such words in the function of the predicate (see examples - above), as well as on the assumption of their relationship with the Old Russian forms of the aorist, that is, with such forms that denoted integral - long-term or instant - actions completely referred to the past (A. A. Shakhmatov). Sometimes words like clap are characterized as truncated forms of the verb, homonymous interjection, and the process of forming such forms is depicted as a chain: clap! ® slam ® clap(S.O. Kartsevsky, A.A. Reformatsky).

According to another point of view (E.D. Polivanov), words like clap, grab- these are special "sound gestures" that do not have any specific verb characteristics and indicators, but only replace or depict this or that action, perceived acoustically or visually. "Sound gestures" are not always correlative with verbs (see in the examples given: trick-trick, shorkh-shorkh); some of them can function not only as predicates, but also as adverbial words. Earlier, the position, in some respects close to the stated point of view, was taken by A.A. Potebnya, who characterized words like clap, grab as verb particles or predicates without forms of time, mood, number and person. Noting the similarity of their meanings with one-act ("single") verbs, A. A. Potebnya emphasized that in the latter the action appears to be more conscious and, therefore, formalized. Without denying the verbal origin of such "particles" as sense, morgue, jump, skip, AA Potebnya nevertheless derived them from the system of verb forms, pointing out that in their use they are on a par with onomatopoeic interjections. Look at words like clap, grab as predicate interjections and at the same time as "sound gestures" are adhered to by some modern researchers.

In a number of cases, we can talk about the functional interaction of interdomains and alliances, primarily adversarial ones: but, an, an No, an lo and behold: You can to act, how you know, but - have v mind, what...; Here would lunch go and sleep collapse, an No! - remember, what you summer resident(Czech.); What doing philosophy Yes other once No time, So already I am and not father? An here No the same, father! father, heck their take it, father! (Gogol); Ay-ah! how hut came! In a hurry bake flood, An lo and behold - nor log firewood(Nekr).

Note. In the literary language of the XIX century. the interjection function was regularly complicated by alliances in, dashing, Yes dashing obsolete: I AM would every week wrote review literary - Yes dashing patience No(Cannon.); Wanted would to me call their on housewarming, ask them feast mountain: in not to be the same this! (Gun.).