The very first source of artificial light was, as already mentioned, the hearth. Thus, originally, the living space was illuminated by one source located in the center. The need for additional side lighting arose simultaneously with the need for a person to express themselves in rock paintings. In his work, he was assisted by a torch, which was installed in the gap between the stones. In the Middle Ages, forged clamps were used to strengthen the torch on the plane of the wall. It was this simple device that served as the prototype of the sconce.

In Greece and Rome, floor lamps, consisting of a tripod and a bowl with a combustible substance (often with aromatic additives), were widespread. A later modification of this lamp is a candelabrum. Unlike the tripod, it had a single support, wide at the base. In different cultures, the same lamp could be called differently. For example, the shandal among the Persians or the menorah among the Jews.

Another lighting device known since those times is the lampadarium. Like the candelabrum, it was stationary. Pendant lights were called lamps and icon lamps and consisted of one or more oval bowls attached to ceiling beams or consoles. The bowls were filled with oil, animal fat or oil. A wick twisted from plant fibers was dipped into the flammable liquid.

The advent of the candle was a major breakthrough in the field of creating new types of lamps. It was in many ways more convenient than all the other devices - it smoked the wrong way, it turned out to be much more economical and easy to manufacture. It was first made from animal fat, and then from beeswax with a cane wick. Later, the wick was made from cotton or hemp fibers. The candle gave birth to a whole galaxy of lamps. The candelabrum has become a graceful branching design. At the end of the 17th century, the chandelier was finally formed. Palace chandeliers for hundreds of candles illuminated the huge ballrooms. The sconces glowed just as brightly in the walls between the windows. The hallways were lit with elaborate candelabra. All of them were reflected in numerous mirrors and their gilded frames. Candles were extinguished with metal caps on long handles. The chandelier consisted of a massive metal frame and a large number of pendants made of glass (transparent or colored) or natural stones. She could weigh about a ton. To lower such a structure, light the candles, and then raise it all, a powerful mechanism was required.

The era of kerosene that came after this gave us a hit in the form of a "bat" lamp. The design of the kerosene lamps was quite sophisticated (one has only to remember the famous Tiffany table lamps). Until now, these not very practical, but reliable lamps in the country house are associated with the era of decadence. And the aforementioned "bat" has been repeatedly used by designers to create new varieties of industrial-style lamps. This solution looks good in kitchens and children's kitchens. And numerous rehash of table lamps and night lamps of the Art Nouveau era for her time perfectly complement the interiors of bedrooms and offices. Modest workers - gas lamps have revolutionized street lighting. Their interior variety, gas burners, peacefully coexisted with kerosene lamps. Both those and others desperately smoked and were not, as they say, environmentally friendly. This is probably why it was worthwhile to come up with electricity.

Electricity is common and common. There are a great variety of electric lamps. The variety of their shapes and materials is simply incredible. We'll talk about them in more detail later. In the meantime, I would just like to summarize all of the above.

Both natural and artificial lighting existed in the primitive dwellings of primitive man. Natural was subdivided into top (chimney) and side (inlet). The artificial was central (hearth) and lateral (torch).

In the Middle Ages, before the advent of candles, oil lamps were used. Very few early candlesticks have survived, since during the wars they were melted into coins. After the restoration of the monarchy in 1660, the candlesticks were forged from thin sheet metal.

By the end of the seventeenth century. skillful Huguenot masters who fled from France from religious persecution introduced the practice of casting candlesticks from solid silver. The base, stand (leg) and the candlestick itself were cast separately, and then soldered. Cast candlesticks were heavy, durable, often with intricate relief decorations.

Fashion at the beginning of the 18th century replaced by simple, minimally decorated candlesticks in the 1730s. richer ornamentation. Some talented craftsmen adopted the lush French Rococo style. The most exquisite candlesticks of the time are elaborately cast stands in the form of female figures holding candle sockets above their heads. By 1780, fashionable, artsy ornamentation gave way to the restrained decor of the neoclassical period. At the same time, the growth of industrial centers such as Birmingham and Sheffield ensured the mass production of candlesticks. Now they were minted from sheet silver, and the hollow parts were filled with resin, wood, and sometimes metal for stability.

For the production of less expensive candlesticks in Birmingham and Sheffield, a mechanical embossing process was used by placing sheet silver in a mold with an embossed pattern (since the 1760s).

Like candlesticks, candelabra were often paired. They came into use from the middle of the 17th century, but most of the surviving copies date from the 18th - 19th centuries. At first, candelabra were made with two simple horns. The number of horns increased from the end of the 18th century, when lunchtime shifted from daytime to evening.

Lots of useful supplies, including tweezers and tapers, were also made of silver. Candle Tongs - A tool with two rings, like a scissor, with a small box, was used to trim a burned-out wick before the invention of the self-absorbing wick in the 1820s. Small candlesticks were intended for thin candles from which to light a pipe, illuminate desks, or melt sealing wax to seal letters.

In the nineteenth century. the decorative style, in accordance with Victorian taste, acquired an exaggerated pretentiousness. In the last years of the century, casting was rarely resorted to, since this method of processing silver became prohibitively expensive, and the mechanization of production involved the production of not paired candlesticks or candelabra, but more sets.

In the late nineteenth and early twentieth century. many silversmiths opposed mass production. They focused on working in a medieval handicraft style using first-class materials and simple designs inspired by Japanese art. From the styles of "Arts and Crafts" and Art Nouveau to Art Deco masters of the twentieth century. managed to embrace both the revival of historical styles and minimalist modern design.

The first lamps

The first lighting device was, apparently, a stone vessel with the fat of some animal and dry grass. Torches with such contents were able to illuminate the road on dark nights and gloomy caves.

Then the prototypes of candles appeared - hollow reed stalks filled with the same fat. These devices produced a lot of soot, and were replaced by others, made of beeswax, with a cotton wick. A torch was also used - a thin sliver, which was clamped with a split rod.

Just think that until the 19th century, other sources of lighting for rooms, except candles, splinters and oil lamps were not!

To light from a small flame candles there were more, in large palaces mirrors were placed next to them - it was much brighter that way.

Evolution lamps expanded this subject range. The first candelabra appeared - candlesticks for one or more candles, then suspended fixtures(choros and chandelier). They were hung by chains in the center of churches or palaces, and were decorated with images of birds and the sun. There were also devices for several lamps - lampadarii.

Aromatic oils, petroleum and kerosene were used as flammable liquids.

The palm in the invention of the first light bulb belongs to the Russians: electrical engineer Alexander Lodygin in 1872 invented an incandescent lamp, consisting of needles wrapped in threads. Such lamps could burn for 40 hours.

Lodygin was the first to reveal the properties of tungsten, which became widely used in the production of lamps. And finally, in 1799, the Italian physicist Volt created the first chemical current source.

Later, fluorescent and very economical halogen lamps appeared.

The history of the development of artificial lighting devices

Acquaintance with the history of the development of household lamps helps to better understand the relationship and mutual influence of technology and culture in these objects of the subject environment of the dwelling, which are extremely diverse in their forms. We find the first literary mention of the lamp in Homer. When describing Odysseus and Telemachus, carrying the weapons of the suitors, it is said: "... and Pallas Athena, invisibly holding a golden lamp, shone for them."

The centuries-old history of household lamps demonstrates the dependence of their shape on the development of artificial lighting technology, materials and manufacturing technology, architecture, arts and crafts and, finally, design.

The sources of artificial light of the ancient world are torches, torches and oil lamps. Oil lamps consisted of a vessel for hemp or linseed oil and a wick. The material for their manufacture was most often clay, less often bronze. Many examples of similar lamps from the period of ancient Greece and Rome have survived. Due to the weak light intensity of one wick, the vessels for oil were supplied with several wicks, and the composition of one lamp sometimes included several vessels. A significant achievement in the technique of artificial lighting was the creation in the 5th century. BC NS. Callimachus wick made of so-called Karpasian flax, a non-combustible material reminiscent of asbestos, mined in Crete. Such an "unquenchable fire" burned for seven centuries in the sanctuary of Athena in the Erechtheion. He is mentioned in the “Descriptions of Hellas” in the II century. n. NS. traveler and geographer Pausanias.

As a widespread household item, lamps have become an object of artistic creativity in ancient times. Already at that time, their shapes and designs were very diverse. At the same time, almost all types of lamps existing today appeared according to the method and place of their installation.

Historically analyzing the evolution of the shape of household lamps, one can trace the emergence and development of their structures and decor. At the same time, stable structures are easily identified that do not depend on the change in architectural and artistic styles. Many types of structures, having arisen in antiquity, have survived to this day. Other types of structures have proven to be less durable. For example, with the advent of electricity, those that existed in the 19th century have become a thing of the past. portable kerosene lamp-mugs. The surviving structures include pendant lamps with a ring or arm structure, table lamps with a central post, and wall sconces (arm). These structures arose and developed during the period when the candle was the most common source of light.

The main reason for preserving the original structures is their expediency and rationality, as well as a certain inertia of human consciousness, people's adherence to stereotypes. For example, the structure of a table candlelight with a central post in the 19th century. was used for kerosene lamps, although, in this case, it is less appropriate. In this case, it was necessary to mask the necessary fuel tank.

With the advent of electric lighting, new types of structures were formed, rational with a new light source. However, many types of structures that cannot be classified as rational continue to be used in electric lighting fixtures. Today we see numerous examples of the use of structures and shapes typical of candle and kerosene lamps.

For many centuries, the luminaire has been regarded as an integral part of the home interior. Therefore, its form and decor developed in close connection with the form of interior equipment and obeyed the stylistic trends in this area.

The luminaire has always been an object of professional and folk decorative art. In the times of Ancient Greece, Etruria and Rome, along with richly decorated bronze lamps, oil lamps were made from baked clay in large quantities. As examples of such ancient examples, one can cite lamps found during excavations of Herculaneum and Pompeii in the 18th century. and lamps from excavations in Chersonesos already in our time (Fig. 1).

To decorate bronze lamps, architectural motifs, images of people and animals, plant and geometric ornaments were widely used. Already at that time, it is easy to notice a lot in common in the elements of lamps and furniture. Etruscan candelabra, like furniture, had supports in the form of human legs or animal paws. Silicate glass appears in bronze oil lamps as diffusers (or rather to protect the flame from gusts of wind).

Clay oil lamps used in the dwellings of ordinary people are also different in shape. However, they use only the motives of the animal and plant world and there are no architectural motives. Most often, such lamps were made portable.

For many centuries, in the homes of peasants in many Nordic countries, including Russia, the main source of light was a torch. To maintain the flame of a burning torch and store new torches, the so-called lights were used. Most often they were forged from metal. Sometimes wooden parts were used as a base. The sevets were very diverse, they were decorated with various metal curls, and the wooden parts were carved and sometimes painted.

For centuries, artificial lighting has been carried out with candles. Safer and more convenient to use, already in the XII century. in ancient Russia they were widely used. Earlier than others, tallow candles appeared, then wax, stearic, paraffinic, spermaceti, which burned longer and gave less soot and smoke. All lighting fixtures of the XVI-XVIII centuries. were various designs, with profits attached to them, into which candles were inserted. The most common were candlesticks (shandals) for various numbers of candles, for the manufacture of which wood, bone, glass and porcelain were used, but the most common was durable fire-resistant metal.

With the development of foundry in Kievan Rus back in the IX century. made copper and silver chandeliers and candlesticks. The name "chandelier" or "polycadilo" comes from the Greek word "polycandelon", which means a candlestick. The most stable composition of the chandelier consisted of a central pivot structure with complex balusters (and later with balls), from which multi-tiered candlesticks branch off (Fig. 4). In later times, the construction of chandeliers formed the basis for the creation of many chandeliers.

Along with the chandelier in Russia, there was an even more ancient form of lamps - choros, which looked like a round bowl suspended on chains and framed by a ring in which candles were installed. There are interesting examples of choruses in the Faceted Chamber of the Moscow Kremlin.

Complex and large lamps were used mainly in churches, palaces and the homes of wealthy people. Such lamps, as a rule, differed not only in size (the diameter of chandeliers in some churches reaches 3 m), but also in excellent decoration, the use of relief carving, artistic casting, valuable materials, painting, gilding.

A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by lanterns ("walking" or "portable"), used in the most solemn occasions (during religious holidays, during the procession, during wedding and funeral rites) and therefore decorated with special luxury. Lanterns usually had a hexagonal shape with mica walls to protect the candle flame from the wind.

With the development of construction and architecture in the XVIII century. numerous large mansions with rich interior decoration appeared. All this gave rise to the need for new, more efficient lamps, which were "wall lamps" and chandeliers. Walls were shiny copper flat or concave reflectors of a round, octagonal or figured shape with candles attached to them, which were hung on the wall. The bright surfaces of the wall panels that attracted attention were engraved, minted, decorated with patterns and images.

The most perfect in terms of lighting and architecture were multi-candle chandeliers with crystal and colored glass. These lamps, various in shape, dimensions, materials, manufacturing technologies, are the product of the corresponding era, both in terms of architectural and technical solutions. The use of such low-power light sources as candles led to the need for large pendant lights with a large number of candles. At the same time, medieval architects had to solve the complex problem of the compositional connection of individual candles scattered in a large volume of weak spots into a single whole. The creation of a single luminous volume of the lamp was ensured by the use of various decorative glass and, above all, crystal. In this regard, it is necessary to note the exceptional influence of the formation and improvement of glass production on the development of lamps.

In ancient times, glass was expensive and of poor quality. With the development of artistic glassmaking, glass for lamps changes, takes on different shapes and colors. For the first time, glass is used as the main material in Venetian candle chandeliers. The main method of their manufacture was the molding of parts from a cooling mass of transparent glass, in which the Venetians were distinguished by unsurpassed virtuoso skill. A Venetian stucco glass chandelier is usually assembled from a bunch of glass stems freely “growing” upward from a single central glass bowl. At the same time, the stems are decorated with flowers, leaves, often intertwined, candlesticks are installed in the flowers; chains of glass rings fall like garlands; the central metal bar is hidden in the glass decorations. Venetian chandeliers, girandoli, candelabra were typical Baroque pieces.

Luminaires made of untreated glass (including Venetian molded glass) are being replaced by crystal ones, which arouse the exceptional and constant interest of architects to this day. A crystal candle chandelier multiplied the visible number of light spots compared to the number of candles used, created a decorative play of light on small and large faceted glass parts, based on refraction and reflection of light, as well as on the effect of light dispersion by trihedral prismatic elements. A moving flame of light, together with crystal, created a different visual effect under different directions of observation. Crystal, playing with light, slightly vibrating under the influence of rising currents of warm air, united a single composition of dim candles and created an exceptional emotional effect, turning the lamp into a light-colored structure unsurpassed in decorative effect.

Artificial crystal, i.e. Glass, got its name from the mineral of rock crystal. Crystal is soft, easily amenable to mechanical processing - faceting, deep grinding, polishing. For the first time faceted crystal appeared in Bohemia in the 17th century; in the XVIII century. In England, a cleaner and softer lead crystal appeared. At the heart of domestic chandeliers of the first half of the 18th century. lies the use of crystal headdress made of stylized oak leaves, star-shaped rosettes, figured "vases" and balls, made at a glass factory in Yamburg, and then at the Petersburg factory. Russian art glassmaking is obliged to appear in the chandeliers of colored painted glass. Blue and pink glass was most often used in the 70s - 80s of the 18th century, ruby ​​and emerald green - at the end of this century. A special place in the history of the development of lamps is occupied by products of Tula craftsmen, made of steel.

In subsequent years, compositional techniques for placing crystal elements in lamps of various structures were developed, as well as the forms of these elements, depending on the technology of their manufacture and the prevailing architectural and artistic style.

The advent of crystal lamps coincided with the heyday of the Baroque style. However, the artistic merit of crystal was most fully revealed during the period of the domination of Rococo, Classicism and Empire style. Fine examples of crystal lamps were created by Russian architects of the 18th and early 19th centuries.

In the middle of the XVIII century. at the same time, “headsets” or “sets” appear in furniture and in lamps, consisting of products of different installation methods, united by a single artistic solution.

As porcelain spread in Europe, it began to be used in decorative elements of lamps.

At the end of the 18th - beginning of the 19th centuries. more and more widespread are lamps, in which bronze displaces other materials, including glass. At the same time, chandeliers with oil lamps appeared, which had significant advantages due to their greater brightness and duration of operation. In these lamps, a reservoir of viscous oils was placed above the burners, which ensured the flow of fuel to the wick. Lamp glasses appeared that protected the flame from the effects of air currents, created traction and reduced soot.

The important stages in the development of lamps were the creation of "Karelian" and kerosene lamps. The first of them, invented by the Frenchman Carcel, had oil reservoirs with a “clock” mechanism that pumped oil into the burner. The kerosene lamp was invented by the Pole Lukasiewicz in 1853. The principal difference between these lamps and oil lamps was the location of the burner above the reservoir; this turned out to be possible due to the fact that kerosene is easily absorbed by the wick and is light combustible. The widespread use of kerosene lamps, and after them gas burners with glowing grids, led to the need for devices to protect the eyes from the glare of the incandescent parts of these lamps. Various milky silicate glass diffusers, “lampshades”, opaque reflectors and screens were used as such devices.

With distribution in the XIX century. kerosene lamps, more complex in design than all the previous lamps, and with the development of the machine method of production, the lamp gradually began to be recognized not only as a decorative element of the interior, but also as a household appliance.

The era of kerosene lighting has created a number of highly stable structures. Electric fixtures still use some of these structures, although not always constructively justified. In kerosene lamps, complex nodes appear for raising and lowering the lamp (candle chandeliers were lowered and raised using small winches). Kerosene lamps of the second half of the 19th century. were produced both in the form of simple and cheap machine-made products, and in the form of unique expensive products using art glass, porcelain and metal casting.

The new method of production entailed the emergence of new materials and technologies, but he could not quickly create his own specific, inherent only to him forms of products. The appearance of electric lighting in the early 80s of the XIX century. happened at a time of style chaos. The desire of the bourgeoisie for the aristocratic respectability of their home revived interest in antiques and led to a revival in architecture and furniture of historical styles of different eras. However, the foremost artists and architects of that time had already begun an intensive search for new paths, which led to the emergence of the Art Nouveau style, which was frankly decorative in nature.

In electric lamps of the late 19th century. two directions were immediately identified: constructive (light, technological form, devoid of any decor) and decorative (use of common style forms of past eras and modernity).

Lamps of constructively simple and expressive forms were produced by many electrical companies in the USA, Germany, and France. As a rule, these were luminaires for local illumination of working areas, with the ability to regulate the direction of the luminous flux. The shape of some of them was so interesting that now their serial production has been resumed. Despite the fact that this step can be seen as a clear stylization in the spirit of "retro", only a specialist can determine that the age of the prototype is already approaching a century.

The electric incandescent lamp made it possible to create, along with multi-layered designs, luminaires with a closed structure, directly recessed into the ceiling or wall. The new light source opened up great possibilities for Art Nouveau artists and architects to create products of expressive decorative form. Art Nouveau, according to which the architects strove for the ensemble unity of the architecture of the building, its interiors and equipment, developed a complex system of stylized ornament based on the motives of the flora. This ornament was often used in lamps. As a typical example, we can cite lamps created by a Russian architect at the turn of the 20th century. for a number of mansions in Moscow. These lamps are inextricably linked with the space and equipment of the interior; they seem to "grow" out of the fantastic forms of the interior. Their shapes are rich in imagination and delicate taste.

And at the same time, Art Nouveau artists no longer try to get away from the machine form, but they want to rethink this form decoratively.

By the 20s of the XX century, when Art Nouveau exhausted itself, the tendency to simplify the shape of products quickly spread throughout Europe. The lamps are also designed with restraint. Pendant lamps with a fabric shade, flat bowl lamps, cuboid pendant-lanterns, wall lamps of simplified shapes, table lamps on a thin central post with a fabric shade, devoid of any decorations - this is the main range of lamps used at that time.

In the early 50s, fluorescent lighting began to enter the dwelling. The process takes place most intensively in Japan, where this type of light source fits perfectly with the traditional national forms of lamps that have formed over the centuries. Fluorescent lighting currently dominates Japanese dwellings.

In Europe, the first attempts to introduce fluorescent lighting were made back in the 40s, but its use in household lamps was limited by the significant size of tubular fluorescent lamps, which made it possible to use them only in ceiling lamps.

A revolutionary breakthrough in this direction took place in the late 70s - early 80s, when mass production of compact fluorescent lamps, comparable in size to standard incandescent lamps, was mastered.

And as always, innovation begins with the use of old forms. The first residential fluorescent luminaires replicate the structure and shape of incandescent lamps. Only later do they acquire their own specific forms.

Such information is found in the annals so often that scientists could not help but become interested in these lamps, which, moreover, did not smoke! This explains one of the still unresolved mysteries of the pyramids of Ancient Egypt: how was it possible to paint frescoes on the walls in complete darkness without spoiling the work with the soot of lamps or torches?

Mention of lamps that have burned for millennia and which are not extinguished by water

Ancient authors reported that numerous rooms of Egyptian underground temples and labyrinths were illuminated by the uniform light of invisible sources. Legends say that underground work in the area of ​​the Cheops pyramid, as well as paintings on the walls of the tombs, were carried out with the use of everlasting lamps. In underground work, devices with luminous flexible cords several tens of meters long were also used. Therefore, in the caves of the pyramids and in the tombs of the pharaohs, there are no traces of soot.

In 1425, an amazing eternal lamp was found in the tomb of Tulliope, the daughter of the Roman orator and philosopher Cicero. The lamp burned without oxygen for 1600 years, illuminating the body of a young girl with long golden hair! The excavation was witnessed by the monk Benedicto, who was invited to look at the amazing lamp, and at the same time to establish whether it was a diabolical obsession. Squeezing into a small chamber, illuminated by smoldering torches, the observant Benedicto, except for the beauty untouched by smoldering, noticed a lamp in the crypt emitting a dim bluish light. The monk immediately reported the find to the cardinal. but when he arrived at the place, the lamp disappeared without a trace. None of the participants in the excavation could explain where the lamp had gone, because they were much more interested in the beautiful deceased.

Archaeologists have found many amazing lamps on the territory of the ancient ancient world and ancient Egypt

Many years of research by Russian scientists today allow us to get some idea about the structure of various types of eternal lamps. For example, on the famous ancient "wonder of the world", the Alexandria lighthouse (140 meters high), nine miniature eternal lamps shone brightly. There were also small brightness amplifiers and other amazing devices. There are suggestions that after the destruction of the lighthouse by the earthquake, these lamps were hidden in underground storage facilities near Memphis.

It is curious that the second emperor of Rome, Numa Pompilius (715-673 BC), had an eternal lamp in the form of an opaque ball, miraculously appeared by the will of the gods under the dome of his temple.

The Greek writer Lucian (120-190 BC) testified that he personally saw a shining stone in the forehead of a statue of the goddess Hera in Heliopolis (Egypt), which illuminated the entire temple at night.

Plutarch (45-127 BC) wrote that there was a lamp above the entrance to the Egyptian temple of Jupiter-Amun, which, according to the priests, has been burning for several centuries without requiring care.

Prayer (II century BC) described a special chapel in the Temple of Jupiter on the Capitol, where there was an image of Pallas Athena, brought (according to legend) by Aeneas from Troy to Italy. This image of the goddess was illuminated by a lamp that burned continuously for a year. This was confirmed by the priests of the temple, who annually in "Five Days" (March 19-23) removed it from the golden chain and removed the dust. The lamp was considered sacred and did not need any oil refill since ancient times.

In his works, Saint Augustine (354-430) reported on an unusual lamp that he saw in the temple of the goddess Isis (Egypt). Augustine himself became convinced that neither wind nor water could extinguish the lamp.

The chronicles of the early 15th century report a sensational find in the vicinity of Rome. In 1401, near Rome, an inextinguishable lantern was discovered in the tomb of Pallant (Pallas), the son of Evandros, glorified by Virgil in the Aeneid. Those who had gathered were surprised to see a burning lamp at the head of the bed. Judging by the date of burial, this lamp has been burning for over 2000 years! However, as soon as the sarcophagus was opened, the flame immediately extinguished.

The Roman Chronicles reported that in 1485, near the Appian Way, a mausoleum with a sarcophagus was found, the interior of which was illuminated by a bluish light from a metal lamp hanging on the wall, which had been burning for more than one and a half thousand years. There is evidence that tombs with similar lamps have survived to the north of Rome.

The Roman Jesuit Athanasius Kircher in 1652 in his book "Edapus Egyptianus" described the unquenchable lamps found in the undergrounds of Memphis, which were not extinguished by water.

The unquenchable lamp, which has been burning for 500 years, is mentioned by many travelers who described the sights of Antioch in the 6th century. AD, during the reign of Justinian. The lamp stood in one of the niches above the city gates of Antioch.

Wonderful lamps were found in Indian and Chinese temples, as well as in places of worship in Latin and South America.

In ancient written sources in India and China, it is also reported about mysterious lamps that were found in tombs. They were also in churches, where they were shown only on special days.

Mysterious lamps were also discovered in the northern part of Europe.

Several similar lamps have been found in England. So, in the medieval chronicles of England it is said that near Bristol, inside an ancient tomb, an unquenchable lamp was discovered that burned for several centuries. This has been reported as a common known device.

The modern press has repeatedly reported about one African village in the jungle, near Mount Wilhemina (West Irian, former Guinea). Foreign researcher K.S. Downey told a conference in Pretoria (South Africa): "Travelers who entered this village among the unexplored mountains were amazed at the sight of stone balls fixed on pillars and glowing with neon-like light after sunset."

Attempts to find out the secret of ancient lamps and hypotheses

However, none of these lamps fell into the hands of scientists as a whole. Only shards and pieces of metal became the subject of their research. Moreover, the difficulties of scientific research did not stop the researchers who were interested in the secret of eternal burning.

An interesting hypothesis on the principle of operation of the mysterious lamps was put forward by the Jesuit scientist Athanasius Kircher. "Egypt has rich oil deposits," he wrote. "Cunning priests secretly piped oil sources to lamps equipped with asbestos wicks. I believe that this is the only solution to the riddle of the supernatural long-burning of such lamps."

Quite a lot of recipes for the preparation of fantastic "non-combustible" oil have survived to our times. However, in each of them one can find inaccuracies, possibly deliberately. In any case, not a single lamp burned on oil made according to such recommendations.

Some researchers have noticed that eternally burning lamps were usually found in places where people were very sensitive to the preservation of dead bodies incorruptible. Usually the internal organs of the deceased were placed in special vessels near the sarcophagus. In the days of the ancient kingdoms ... the soul was also ranked among the internal organs! It was called "rose of the heart", "pearl in a lotus flower", "inner fire", "divine spark" ... It was the soul, according to the ancients, who gave life to the body. The thought involuntarily comes: what if there were no combustible substances or wicks in the eternally burning lamps, and instead of them the souls of the departed shone like unquenchable lamps? Of course, this fragile treasure ceased to exist as soon as outsiders invaded the tomb.

In the Egyptian "Book of the Dead" there is a chapter "On the ascent to the Light", which says that the pharaoh could leave his tomb at any time. However, for this he needed life force, which was stored nearby in a glass vessel ...

though

Small-sized lamps of various designs mainly had a corona glow around balls, crystals of various shapes. The glow was of different brightness and color. Studies show that brightly glowing lamps had replaceable power sources, the life of which was calculated up to several decades. Low-brightness luminaires had stationary power supplies based on rare-earth elements that are capable of functioning for millennia.

For street lighting, the luminaires were larger. Caps were sometimes put on brightly glowing lamps, which increased the brightness of the lighting. Interestingly, in the 19th century. in Moscow, St. Petersburg were widely used in street kerosene and gas lamps "Auer caps" made of a rare metal - thorium oxide, which glowed in a flame and glowed brighter than the flame of the lamp.
The knowledge of modern science is sufficient to create such eternal lamps with an autonomous power source. They can be used in underground (mine) work, away from the power source, in explosive areas, etc.

It is not excluded that such ancient non-extinguishing lamps are in the Russian depositories of museums, religious buildings, unaware of their value.

Many historians are inclined to believe that the era of active development of mankind began from the moment when primitive people learned to make fire, use it for cooking, heating and lighting homes. Fire was considered a gift of the gods, it was revered and cherished, legends and myths passed down from generation to generation about it.

The history of the lamp - from icon lamps to gas lamps

Over time, people have learned not only to control fire, but also to create the first lighting devices in the history of mankind.

Lamps and torches

The very first lamp invented by man was an ordinary torch. In the Middle Ages, they began to fix it on the wall using special clamps. A prototype of modern equipment was also used in Ancient Greece. Here, special structures were used to illuminate the premises - tripods equipped with a bowl with a combustible substance, as well as hanging lamps.

Candles

The next stage of evolution is the emergence of a candle. The first candles were made from wax, which was very expensive. That is why for a long time only representatives of the aristocracy could afford such a luxury. In the 19th century, the French chemist Michel Chevrol first proposed replacing wax with a cheaper analogue - stearin, which was practically odorless and did not emit soot when burning.

Gas lanterns

Further development of science in the field of chemistry made it possible to use a variety of combustible gases for lighting. For the first time, such lights appeared in Europe, where they were quite widespread. The main component of the so-called "lamp gas" was benzene. It was obtained by pyrolysis of the fat of marine mammals, and a little later - from coal during its coking.

Incandescent and LED luminaires

Incandescent lamps

The history of the emergence of a lamp in a traditional design for us began after the discovery of electricity. Its use opened up practically unlimited possibilities for inventors, since it made it possible to significantly increase the heating temperature of light sources and, thereby, to increase the intensity of the light flux. The first conductive materials used for heating were carbon filament, molybdenum, tungsten and its alloys. They decided to place the light sources in glass tanks filled with inert gases, which protected them from external influences. Today, for the production of traditional incandescent lamps, a tungsten filament is used, which can heat up to 2800-3200 ° C.

LED equipment

From the moment the first lamp appeared and up to the present day, inventors have tried to solve two main problems: to increase their efficiency and to make them as safe as possible. Great results have been achieved with the advent of LED equipment. The advantages of such products include efficiency, absence of harmful components, and resistance to external influences. The only drawback of LED equipment is its high cost, however, gradually the price of LED lamps is becoming more and more affordable.

Despite the excellent results, experts are sure that the history of the lamp has not ended with the advent of LED equipment. Ahead of inventors awaits a host of exciting discoveries that will ensure maximum efficiency for lamps and comfort for our lives.

Introduction

A lamp is an artificial light source, a device that redistributes the lamp light inside large solid angles and provides an angular concentration of the luminous flux. The main task of the luminaire is to diffuse and direct light to illuminate buildings, their interiors, areas adjacent to buildings, streets, etc. Luminaires can also serve as a decorative function.

The purpose of the test is to form a meaningful and reasonable approach to the design of a work of decorative and applied art based on an analysis of historical traditions, the specifics of artistic and imaginative solutions and technological conditions for the existence of a decorative work in various cultural and historical eras, taking into account modern trends in interior design and clothing.

Test tasks:

• - to analyze the evolution of a household item as a work of decorative and applied art in various historical, stylistic and technological conditions;
• - to search for and develop effective ways of presenting a work of decorative and applied art and folk crafts, decorating the exposition and its individual exhibits.

Lamp history

The history of lamps dates back to the times of primitive people, when a fire was constantly maintained in the middle of the cave, which allowed primitive people not only to cook food and warm up, but also to light up their unpretentious dwelling. This kind of hearth is the prototype of the first floor lamp. The caveman's need to express his thoughts through the rock art also prompted the need for additional side lighting. This illumination was a torch, which was fixed in the crevices of the cave. And much later, already in the Middle Ages, forged clamps of various designs began to be used to mount the torch on the wall. Such a simple device is the ancestor of today's sconces.

The ancient Romans and Greeks widely used floor lamps, which were a tripod ending in a bowl with a combustible substance, to which aromatic substances were often added. Candelabra are a later type of such a lamp. Instead of a tripod, the candelabra had a single support, which had a wide base for greater stability. This type of lamp was the prototype of the well-known modern floor lamp.

Another type of lighting device, also known from past periods, was the lampadarium, which was also stationary. The pendant lights of the time were in the form of oval bowls that were attached to a console or ceiling beam. The bowl contained a flammable liquid, which could be oil, animal fat or oil. A wick was immersed in this liquid, which was twisted from plant fibers. These types of lamps were called lamps and lamps.

The candle has given rise to a major breakthrough in the lighting industry. Distinguished by great convenience and being simple and economical in production in comparison with other devices, the candle contributed to the creation of a whole family of various lamps, and the candelabrum acquired elegance and ornate designs.

At the end of the seventeenth century, the formation of the overall design of the chandelier was completed, which now served as the basis for hundreds of candles and illuminated the huge ballrooms. The chandelier of that time was a massive metal frame on which many pendants made of glass or natural stone were attached. The weight of such a chandelier could reach the order of a ton and a very powerful mechanism was required to maintain it. Indeed, in order to light the candles in the chandelier, it was necessary first to lower the chandelier, and then, with the candles already lit, to raise it. The candles were extinguished with special metal caps, which were attached to a long handle. The candles themselves were first made from animal fat, and then began to be made from beeswax. A reed served as a wick in such candles. At a later time, cotton and hemp fibers were used as a wick.

Candles were replaced by kerosene, which gave rise to the creation of a lamp called the "bat". The design of this lamp still serves as a prototype for the creation of many types of lamps that are used in kitchens, in children's rooms in the form of various table lamps and sconces.

Gas lanterns have revolutionized street lighting. Along with kerosene lamps, gas burners smoked uncontrollably, but regularly carried out their service of street lighting. The successful solution to the soot problem occurred in 1799, when electricity was invented by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta. In the field of lighting fixtures, various styles began to evolve rapidly.

Today, you can already choose a style for lighting your home in a spirit that is closest to you. It can be minimalism, pop art, art deco, high-tech, etc.

The late 19th and early 20th centuries enriched architecture with the freedom to use artificial light. Display windows, side stained-glass windows, continuous glazing of facades have not, however, abolished the historically established types of natural lighting. It is quite possible that everything is said in this area. The stormy architectural creativity of the late XX and early XXI centuries was not marked by the invention of anything new. Skillful combination of historically formed forms with new materials and technologies gives rise to objects of amazing originality. Natural light is used very actively in them.

Overhead light and skylights are widely used. Artificial lighting, despite the predominantly electrical nature, is divided into the same main groups: top, bottom, side. It is complemented and diversified by well-known spotlights, which allow you to uniformly illuminate the room and create whimsical light compositions. Hidden sources, lighting of furniture and interior items serve to create additional effects. For example, they allow you to expand or, conversely, narrow the space, visually change its geometry, and place accents.