A study of the inscriptions on medieval weapons reveals an interesting story about the mentality and beliefs of both the knights wearing these weapons and the craftsmen who made them. The mystical meaning of these inscriptions was important for the knights participating in the crusades and in the numerous wars of that turbulent time. The sword was a symbol of justice, protection of Christian ideals, peace and tranquility of citizens. They prayed for them, took an oath, took vows. Sometimes in the top of the handle there were holy relics. Famous swords had their own names. King Arthur's sword had the name Excalibur, had magical properties and could heal wounds.

"D NE QVIA VIM PATIOR RESPONDE PRO ME" from Latin was translated as - "Lord, so that I do not tolerate offense, answer for me." The first D stands for DOMINE for short. This inscription is derived from a quotation from the Bible Libri Isaiae Capitis XXXVIII versum XIV
DOMINE VIM PATIOR RESPONDE PRO ME
However, often the inscriptions were abbreviated, with the initial letters of religious sayings. Illiterate knights participating in the crusades memorized the words of prayers from the first letters engraved on their swords. This way they could read a prayer before the battle. Let's say:
DIOLAGR reads like this: "D (e) I O (mnipotentis) LA (us) G (enitricis) R (edemptoris)". Translated from Latin, this means - "God the almighty GLORY of the mother of the redeemer." Another composition ININININININ, despite the abundance of signs, is much simpler and means: I (esu) N (omine), I (esu) N (omine), I (esu) N (omine) and three more repetitions. The text is translated as "In the name of Jesus, in the name of Jesus, in the name of Jesus ..." and three more times. Cipher SNEMENTS means: S (ankta) N (omin) E M (atris) E (nimo) N T (rinita) S - "Holy in the name of the Mother of God in the name of the Trinity."
IHS (Jesus Homini Salvator) or separately used letters S, O, X (Salvator - Savior, Omnipotentes - Almighty, Xristus -Christ).

IN NOMINE DOMINI (In the name of the Lord)
SOLI DEO GLORIA (Only for the glory of God)
USSU TUO DOMINE (By your order, Lord)
IN TI DOMINI (In thy name, Lord)
IN DEO GLORIA (To the glory of God)
PRO DEO ET RELIGIONE VERA (For God and true religion)
IVDICA DOMINE NOCENTES ME EXPUGNA IMPUGNATES ME, representing the first stanza of Psalm 34: "Judge, O Lord, those who are in litigation with me, fight those who are struggling with me."
FIDE SED CUI VIDE (Believe, but look who you believe)
ELECTIS CANCIONATUR DEO GLORIA DATUR
PAX PARTA TUENDA (Equal Peace Must Be Saved)
ROMANIS SACRIFICATUR RARAE GLORIA DATUR (A prayer is offered up by the Romans and the Pope is glorified)

Later, when the sword came into use as an indispensable attribute of a noble family, which was worn constantly, and which meant a readiness to defend honor and dignity at any moment, another kind of inscriptions appeared:
VINCERE AUT MORI (Win or Die)
INTER ARMA SILENT LEGES (Laws are silent among weapons)
FIDE, SED CUI VIDE (Believe, but see who)

Some Latin mottos can be classified as moral and ethical instructions. Let's say:
TEMERE NEC TIMIDE (Do not insult and do not be afraid),
VIM SUPERAT RATIO (Reason overcomes strength)
HOCTANGI MORTI FERRUM (The touch of this iron is fatal)
RECTE FACIENDO NEMINEM TIMEAS (Do not be afraid by doing the right thing)

There are inscriptions in national European languages, which often have the meaning of mottos:
Ne te tire pas sans raison ne me remette point sans honneur (Don't strip me unnecessarily, don't sheathe me without honor)
Honni soit qui mal y pense (Shame on those who think ill of it)
Dieu mon esperance, Ieröe pour that defense (God is my hope, the sword is my defense).

Often the inscriptions on weapons are mixed, reflecting the new ideology of the absolutist monarchy:
PRO GLORIA ЕТ PATRIA (For Glory and Fatherland)
PRO DEO ЕТ PATRIA (For God and Fatherland)
VIVAT REX (Long live the king)

There were also frequent verse inscriptions, characteristic only of these instruments of execution: Die hersen Steiiren Demvnheil
Jch ExeQuire Jhr Vrtheil
Wandem sunder wirt abgesagt das leben
Sowirt er mir vnter meine handt gegeben
(Hearts rule misery
I carry out your sentence
A sinner when he is taken from his life
Then he is handed over to me).

Other inscriptions on the blades:
"Cuando esta vivora pica, No hay remedio en la botica" (there is no cure for this viper in the pharmacy). The inscription on the Navah donated to Stalin by the Spanish Republicans.

"You wicked die by my hand." The inscription on the hunting dagger. Chrysostom, 1880s.

"Meine Ehre heißt Treue" (Faithfulness is called my honor). motto on daggers SS (Schutz Staffeln)

"Mort aux boches" (Death nemchure). Boche is a French dismissive / abusive name for the Germans. Inscriptions on the blades of the French resistance.
"Beware of false friends yourself, and I will save you from enemies." Latin inscription on the saber of the Polish king Jan Sobieski
"In truth is power" inscription on the saber of the lame Timur
Melius non incipient, quam desinent -
Better not to start than stop halfway
Serva me - servabo te - save me - save you
Mehr sein als scheinen - Be better than you seem
Oderint, dum metuant. - Let them hate - they were afraid of lefby.
"Don't take it out without need, don't invest without fame"
"Without faith, do not swear, swearing to believe" is one of the many mottos on the Cossack checkers.
"In hostem omnia licita." - In relation to the enemy, everything is permitted. (Lat.)
In omnia paratus - ready for anything
Ultima ratio - the final argument

The sword has a rather simple design: a long blade with a handle, while swords have many forms and uses. The sword is more comfortable than the ax, which is one of its predecessors. The sword is adapted for inflicting slashing and thrusting blows, as well as for parrying enemy blows. Longer than a dagger and not easily hidden in clothing, the sword is in many cultures a noble weapon, a symbol of status. He had a special significance, being at the same time a work of art, a heirloom, a symbol of war, justice, honor, and of course glory.

Sword structure

The sword usually consists of the following elements:

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f. Blade (sharpened part of the blade)
g. Sharp (piercing part)

There are many variants of the shape of the blade sections. Usually the shape of the blade depends on the purpose of the weapon, as well as on the desire to combine rigidity and lightness in the blade. The figure shows some double-edged (positions 1, 2) and single-edged (positions 3, 4) blade shapes.

There are three basic forms of sword blades. Each of them has its own advantages:

• Straight blade (s) are intended primarily for thrusting.
• A blade curved back towards the butt (b) inflicts a deep cut wound upon impact.
• A blade curved forward towards the blade (c) is effective for delivering a chopping blow, especially when it has an expanding and heavy upper part.

It is important to understand that the specialization of the sword in one type of blows did not make other types of blows impossible - a thrust can be delivered with a saber, and a cutting blow with a sword.

Civilians, when choosing a sword, were guided mainly by fashion trends. The military, on the other hand, tried to find the perfect blade that would combine the same effectiveness in both cutting and thrusting strikes.

Africa and the Middle East

In most of these regions, the sword is a very common weapon, but in Africa it is rare and difficult to date. Most of the swords shown here ended up in Western museums and collectors thanks to travelers in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

1. Double-edged sword, Gabon, West Africa. A thin blade is made of steel, the hilt of the sword is wrapped in brass and copper wire.
2. Takouba, sword of the Tuareg tribe of the Sahara.
3. Flissa, sword of the Kabil tribe, Morocco. Single-edged blade decorated with engraving and inlaid with brass.
4. Kaskara, the straight, double-edged sword of the Baghirmi people, Sahara. The style of this sword is close to the Sudanese swords.
5. Double-edged sword of the East African Masai. Rhombic section of the blade, no guard.
6. Shotel, double-edged sword with a double curvature of the blade, Ethiopia. The crescent shape of the sword is designed to defeat the enemy behind his shield.
7. Sudanese sword with a characteristic double-edged straight blade and a cruciform guard.
8. Arab sword, XVIII century The blade is probably of European origin. The silver hilt of the sword is gilded.
9. Arab sword, Longola, Sudan. The double-edged steel blade is adorned with geometric patterns and the image of a crocodile. The sword hilt is made of ebony and ivory.

Near East

1. Kilich (fang), Turkey. The specimen shown in the picture has a 15th century blade, and an 18th century hilt. Often, at the top, the blade of the keelidge has an elman - an expanded part with a straight blade.
2. Yatagan, classical form, Turkey. A sword with a single-edged blade curved forward. The bone handle has a large pommel; the guard is missing.
3. Scimitar with a silver handle. The blade is decorated with corals. Turkey.
4. Saif, a curved saber with a characteristic pommel. Found wherever the Arabs lived.
5. Checker, Caucasus. Circassian origin, was widely used by the Russian cavalry. the blade of this instance is dated 1819, Persia.
6. Dagger, Caucasus. The dagger could reach the size of a short sword, one of which is shown here.
7. Shamshir, typical form. Persian with a curved blade and a characteristic hilt.
8. Shamshir with a wavy blade, Persia. The steel handle is decorated with gold inlay.
9. 18. Quaddara. Large dagger. The handle is made of horn. The blade is decorated with etching and gold notching.

Indian subcontinent

The region of India and adjacent regions is rich in a variety of types of swords. In India, the world's finest steel blades with luxurious decorations were made. In some cases, it is difficult to give the correct name to some samples of blades, to determine the time and place of their manufacture, so their thorough study is still ahead. Dates shown are for the instances shown only.

1. Chora (khyber), a heavy single-edged sword of the Afghan and Pashtun tribes. Afghan-Pakistani borderlands.
2. ... A sword with a curved blade and a disc-shaped hilt, India. This specimen was found in North India, XVII century.
3. Tulvar (talwar) with a wide blade. Was the executioner's weapon. This copy is of North India origin, XVIII-XIX centuries.
4. Tulwar (Talwar) Punjabi style steel grip with safety bow. Indore, India. End of the 18th century
5. , steel handle with gilding in the "King's Indian" style. Double-edged straight blade. Nepal. XVIII century
6. Khanda. The handle is made in the style of "Indian basket" with a branch for gripping with both hands. Marathi people. XVIII century
7. Sucking pattah. The handle is made in the style of "Indian basket". Forward curved, reinforced blade with one blade. Central India. XVIII century
8. South Indian sword. Steel handle, square wooden pommel. The blade is curved forward. Madras. XVI century
9. Sword from the temple of the Nayar people. Brass handle, double-edged steel blade. Thanjavur, South India. XVIII century
10. South Indian sword. Steel handle, double-edged wavy blade. Madras. XVIII century
11. ... Indian sword with a plate gauntlet - a steel guard that protected the hand up to the forearm. Decorated with engraving and gilding. Aud (currently Uttar Pradesh). XVIII century
12. Adyar katti of typical shape. A short, heavy blade curved forward. The handle is made of silver. Kurgh, Southwest India.
13. Zafar Takeh, India. Attribute of the overlord at the audience. The top of the handle is made in the form of an armrest.
14. ("stranger"). This name was used by the Indians for European blades with Indian hilts. Shown here is a Marathi sword with a 17th century German blade.
15. A double-edged two-handed sword with hollow iron tops. Central India. XVII century
16. Bark. The blade is curved forward, has one blade with a "pulled" apex. Nepal. XVIII century
17. ... Long narrow blade. It was widespread in the 19th century. Nepal, circa 1850
18. Kukri. Iron hilt, graceful blade. Nepal, circa 19th century
19. Kukri. Was in service with the Indian army in World War II. Manufactured by a contractor in North India. 1943 g.
20. Ram dao. A sword used for animal sacrifice in Nepal and North India.

Far East

1. Tao. Sword of the Kachin tribe, Assam. The specimen shown in the picture shows the most common blade shape known in this region.
2. Tao (noklang). Two-handed sword, Khasi people, Assam. The handle of the sword is made of iron, the trim is made of brass.
3. Dha. Single-edged sword, Myanmar. The cylindrical hilt of the sword is covered with white metal. Blade inlaid with silver and copper.
4. Castane. The sword has a carved wooden handle and a safety steel bow. Decorated with silver and brass inlay. Sri Lanka.
5. Single-edged Chinese iron sword. The handle is a blade petiole wrapped with a cord.
6. Talibon. Short sword of Filipino Christians. The handle of the sword is made of wood and braided with reeds.
7. Barong. Moro short sword, Philippines.
8. Mandau (parang ihlang). Sword of the Dayak tribe - bounty hunters, Kalimantan.
9. Parang pandit. Sword of the Sea Dayak tribe, Southeast Asia. The sword has a single-edged blade curved forward.
10. Campilan. Single-edged sword of the Moro and Sea Dayak tribes. The handle is made of wood and decorated with carvings.
11. Klewang. A sword from the island of Sula-vesi, Indonesia. The sword has a single-edged blade. The handle is made of wood and decorated with carvings.

Europe of the Bronze and Early Iron Ages

The history of the European sword is not so much a process of improving the functionality of the blade as of changing it under the influence of fashion trends. Swords made of bronze and iron were replaced by steel ones, the design was adapted to new theories of combat, but no innovations led to a complete rejection of the old forms.

1. Short sword. Central Europe, early Bronze Age. The blade and the hilt of the sword are riveted.
2. Curved single-edged short sword, Sweden. 1600-1350 biennium BC. The sword is made from a single piece of bronze.
3. Homeric bronze sword, Greece. OK. 1300 BC This instance was found at Mycenae.
4. Long one-piece bronze sword, one of the Baltic islands. 1200-1000 years BC.
5. Late Bronze Age sword, Central Europe. 850-650 BC BC.
6. Iron sword, Hallstatt culture, Austria. 650-500 biennium BC. The sword handle is made of ivory and amber.
7. - iron sword of the Greek hoplites (heavily armed infantry). Greece. Approximately VI century. BC.
8. Falcata - iron single-edged sword, Spain, around the 5th-6th centuries BC. Swords of this type were also used in classical Greece.
9. Iron sword blade, La Tene culture. Around the 6th century BC. This copy was found in Switzerland.
10. An iron sword. Aquileia, Italy. The sword handle is made of bronze. Around the 3rd century. BC.
11. Gaulish iron sword. Department of Aub, France. Anthropomorphic bronze handle. Around the 2nd century. BC.
12. Iron sword, Cambria, England. The sword handle is made of bronze and decorated with enamel. Around the 1st century.
13. Gladius. Iron Roman short sword. The beginning of the 1st century.
14. Roman gladius of the late type. Pompeii. The edges of the blade are parallel, the point is shortened. End of the 1st century

Europe of the Middle Ages

Throughout the early Middle Ages, the sword was a highly valuable weapon, especially in Northern Europe. Many Scandinavian swords have richly decorated hilts, and their x-ray studies have established the very high quality of their blades. However, the late medieval sword, despite its significant status as a knightly weapon, often has the usual cruciform shape and a simple iron blade; only the pommel of the sword gave the craftsmen some scope for imagination.

Early medieval swords were forged with wide blades designed to deliver a chopping blow. Since the XIII century. narrow blades designed for stabbing began to spread. It is assumed that this trend was caused by the increased use of armor, which was easier to pierce with a piercing blow at the joints.

To improve the balance of the sword, a heavy pommel was attached to the end of the handle, as a counterweight to the blade. The pommel had a wide variety of shapes, the most common of which were:

1. Mushroom
2. In the shape of a "teapot cover"
3. American walnut
4. Disc-shaped
5. Wheel shaped
6. Triangular
7. Fishtail
8. Pear-shaped

Viking sword (right), 10th century. The handle is wrapped in silver foil with an embossed "braided" ornament, which is shaded with copper and niello. The steel double-edged blade is wide and shallow. This sword was found in one of the Swedish lakes. It is currently housed in the State Historical Museum in Stockholm.

Middle Ages

Most of the readers - except perhaps the very young ones - first got acquainted with this weapon, I think, precisely on the pages of "It's Difficult to Be God." And that is why very many people have an idea that it is necessary to wield a two-handed sword "in a pampov way", describing wide circles and ominous rustling, and even so that the length is over 2 meters, and the weight is over 20 kg. With the greatest respect for the baron and his co-creators, we will still try to separate the flies from the cutlets, and the sword from the helicopter.

Found a typo? Select the fragment and press Ctrl + Enter.

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Lightsabers are Jedi and Sith weapons suitable for both combat and ritual. They are used only by those warriors who are endowed with concentration, dexterity and harmony with the power of light or darkness. During the game you will come across several types of such swords. Read more about them in more detail.

Single-bladed lightsaber

A single-bladed lightsaber is available to Cal Curtis from the start of the game. For the first time, the hero will use it on the Brakka plant, when the second and ninth sisters arrive there. In the future, you will find parts for this weapon and modify it.

Dual lightsaber

The reversible lightsaber has two blades and a handle in the middle. It is well suited for battles with numerous opponents. In addition, at the right time, you can remove one blade to turn the double sword into a regular one.

How to get a double lightsaber

The two-sided sword can be obtained on the planet Dathomir. Once you arrive there, go to the Soul Rocks location and explore it to find a passage to the upper level. From there you will be taken to Brother's Bastion. Through it you can go to the building in which there is a workbench for creating the weapons you need. The screenshot below shows its location.

In addition, the double-edged sword can be obtained from the abandoned workshop during the second visit to the planet Bogdano. But in order to get to the workbench, you will need the Power Pull skill.

Two swords

Cal Kestis can use two swords at the same time - one in each hand. This will become available in the story, closer to the end of the game. To avoid spoilers, we won't go into details.

I was shackled
Betray the fighter
In the first battle.

I was sent
By evil gold
To the extreme light.

R.Kipling Runes on the Wieland sword Per. M. Gasparova

The finds of runic inscriptions on weapons demonstrate to us probably the most powerful form of human influence on the world around him. Runes were undoubtedly the most effective magical tool, while weapons acted as the most authoritative and indisputable argument in the sphere of material life. Both, from the point of view of a person of the archaic era, most effectively transformed reality, changing it in the required direction. The combination of two such effective weapons into a single complex, undoubtedly, should have significantly increased the effectiveness of the steps being taken. In this context, it is interesting to subject the study to those patterns that can be discerned when analyzing the fund of runic monuments associated with weapons.

It should be noted that the number of inscriptions on weapons known to date is relatively small and, in general, constitutes a relatively small percentage of the total number of runic monuments, and the completely disproportionate distribution of them by eras is striking. So, if from the era of older runes and the transition period that interests us, it has come down to us at least 26 inscriptions on weapons, then the period of junior-runic writing (from about 700 to 1300 g.) has preserved only about two dozen objects of this kind. Recall that little more than the older runic inscriptions are known. 250 , while the number of epigraphic monuments of the Viking Age and the Middle Ages is almost in 6000 units. As a result, we get very indicative figures: older runic the inscriptions on the weapons are approximately 10 % of the total number of finds, while junior- only about 0,0035 % .

At the same time, in no way can such a difference be attributed to any differences in the state of the source fund - we have, as you know, a huge number of finds of weapons of the Viking Age, immeasurably surpassing the total number of similar artifacts of the times The great migration or other eras. That is, the presented ratio was obtained on the basis of an analysis of a completely correct database and reflects a certain pattern that actually existed and is reflected in the sources. Of course, the collection of inscriptions is increasing, and over time, as in any other area of ​​runic epigraphy, certain changes in the statistical order occur, but such a colossal gap in numbers will undoubtedly not undergo a significant correction.

The ratio of finds within this group is interesting. 23 runic inscriptions from 26 applied to offensive weapons. Among them 14 copies swords and their structural elements - pommels, sheaths, etc., 8 handpieces copies and darts, 1 shaft arrows... Moreover, only 3 finds are related to items of defensive weapons - 2 umbons from shields and helmet.

In his research on the problem of runic inscriptions on weapons, TO.Duvelle singles out four groups finds, differentiated by him according to chronological and geographical characteristics. First group make up finds originating from swamps of southern Jutland and northern Germany.Second block form inscriptions on spearheads and darts related to the period III c,.n.NS. Third group includes Anglo-Saxon inscriptions on weapons dated VI in.n.NS... Finally, in fourth group the most recent inscriptions attributed to VII in... and found outside the Scandinavian Peninsula, in continental Europe... This classification is not ideal, but it allows you to draw attention to certain patterns that are present in this collection of finds. Striking, for example universal character of thrusting and throwing weapons- inscriptions on spears and darts are present in all chronological sub-periods of the considered period of time. At the same time, items of defensive weapons belong mainly to the earliest eras of runic writing and are not represented among the later finds. We also note that, with the rarest exceptions (except for the inscription from Evreux Staby), finds of weapons are associated with continental Europe,British Isles or Denmark but not with Scandinavian Peninsula... This emphasizes the rather mobile nature of the way of life that was inherent in the Germans during the period of resettlement and even in the era of the early barbarian kingdoms, although, of course, it also indicates a greater population density in the non-Scandinavian regions of the German world, as well as the wide spread of runic literacy here. and the activity of the use of runes in military use.

So, the most local and at the same time the longest existing group is formed by inscriptions on weapons from swamps of the borderlands of Germany and Denmark... The circumstances of their discovery do not always give an answer to the question of how exactly this or that object got into the swamp. Assign all these objects a priori to results of sacrifices hardly possible, if only because we cannot completely exclude other possible circumstances as a result of which the object ended up in the depths of the swamp. For example, the owner could drop it and lose it while crossing the swamp, or drown with it, throw a spear at the enemy, who, in turn, could no longer get out to a dry place, etc. That is, we have no reason to see in every find a sacrifice to the gods, regardless of what the inscription itself is.

Finds from the swamps date back to around 200 AD. up to the VI century inclusive. The most indicative in this group are the following inscriptions:

1. The head of the sword sheath from Thorsberg refers to the earliest objects with runic signs - it bears two inscriptions: owlpupewar and niwajemariR... The first of the inscriptions is considered by specialists as distorted w (u) lpupewaR- determining the ownership of the weapon (with the -aR suffix): "Shining, magnificent vigilante"... Second part - "Well known"(glorious);

2. To second half of III century... belongs to the sheath of the sword from Vimose v Denmark... The inscription consists of two parts: mariha iala and makija and reads like this: "This sword belongs to me" or, alternatively, "This sword belongs to Maru (owner's name)";

3. Also in Vimose a silver scabbard plate with gilded trim was found. The name is written on it in runes awns- probably, Awings;

4. From the swamp to Illerup comes the handle of the shield with the inscription swarda... She belongs to the earliest - about 200 g... - and is interpreted as one of the variants of the Germanic word "sword" or adjective swarta - "black";

5. From the famous Nyudm swamp, famous for the discovery of one of the well-preserved ships of the era of resettlement, an arrow shaft occurs, dating from the interval III-V c.v. with an inscription lua-possibly distorted by a typical spell alu;

6. The inscription on the bronze fragment of the umbon from Illerup - aisgRh... Here is a list of translations suggested by individual researchers: Bugge- "Shigi owns this shield";Olsen - "Win, Shield";Greenberger - "I am winning." ;Noreen - "Eisger owns it";Holthausen - "The Sigger Owns Me"; Krause - "Aisig. Hagel "(two words - "furious" and "Spoilage");Gutenbrunner - "Stay Unharmed by the Storm of Spears"(kenning); Antonsen - "The deflecting hail"(spears or arrows); Eric Moltke spoke in favor of the meaninglessness (unreadability) of the inscription. Such a variable reading, which nevertheless retains a stable semantic core, allows this inscription to be attributed to one of two typical formalized classes of inscriptions;

7. Out of the swamp Kragehul in Denmark there are five fragments of spearheads, one of which bears the inscription: EkerilaR asugisalas muha haite gagaga ginuga he lija hagalawijubig... In this rather long text, the first few words are clearly and unambiguously read: I, Eril Asgisl ... This is followed by more or less standardized initiations and magic formulas, including the well-known gagaga.

In addition, there is a very indicative category among the bog finds. On the umbilicus of a shield Thorsberg there is a Roman inscription - AEL (IUS) AELIANUS... There are other Roman names found at Illerup, Nyudam, Thorsberg, and Vimosa.

Another group of runic inscriptions is represented by finds of the same type. throwing and stabbing spears... The earliest of them, attributed to second half of II century., at the same time considered to be the earliest runic inscription, is a leaf-shaped tip from Evreux Staby in Norway, originating from a burial complex consisting of two male and two female incinerations. One of the most popular interpretations of the inscription raunijaR - "Depriving the enemy of courage"... From Damsdorf, v Central Brandenburg going dated the middle of the 3rd century... spearhead inscription: ranja ("In motion"?), which is attributed to those who were here at that time burgundy... The only arrowhead not found in the burial is the Kovel arrowhead, bearing the inscription tilarids - Goal-seeking.

Finds from Mos (Gotland) - sioag or gaois(translation is unclear, perhaps "Roaring, sounding"), as well as a Polish find from the town Rozvadov - ... krlus(Maybe, "I, Herul"?).

WITH British isles, mainly from burials, there are several finds. V Kent found five sword parts VI in... and one spearhead VII in... - including found:

1.In Sarah- unreadable inscription on the pommel of the sword;

2.In Ash Gilton- also the pommel: eic sigimer nemde - "Sigimer called me", on the other side - sigi mci ah("Shigi owns me");

3. Sheath cover made of Chessel Down-Friedhof on isle of wight: aeco so eri ("Increasing suffering");

4. Two silver gilded tops with "z" runes from Ash-Gilton sometimes regarded as a dedication Tohru;

5. Faversham... On the pommel of the sword the Tyr rune is inscribed twice... This case, from the point of view of the information available to us, should be recognized as a classic - this corresponds to one of the extremely few references in Edda about the true magical meaning and use of runes;

6. The tip of the spear from Holborough- a kind binderuna: Tyra rune on a rectangular base reminiscent of the Cyrillic letter P;

7. Finally, Scramasax from Thames. "Non-canonical" option Anglo-Saxon Futhark, padded with probably the owner's name: beagnop.

A certain inexpressiveness of the Anglo-Saxon inscriptions is explained by the fact that the Germanic linguistic and magical basis of the runic writing in England fell into decay rather quickly.

Continental lettering VII in... rare. Of more than 50 found, for example, in Germany, - only five made on weapons. Of these, relatively legible four... On a silver plate made of Leibenau apparently the owner's name is present - Rauzvi, the rest of the signs are controversial. Scramasax from Heilfingen carries the inscription ikxrxkwiwixu... It is clear only that there is a pronoun at the beginning ik - "I am".

Spearhead from Wurmlingen-inscription idorih... Reading options - "I make powerful and respected", proper name or dedication Tohru (Top = Dor?). Perhaps there is a proper name on the Saxon from Steindorf:husibald ...

The era of the Vikings has brought to us only three(!) inscriptions on weapons are very few in number and inscriptions of the subsequent time ( XII-XIII centuries). Suffice it to say that out of about 3 thousand axes found in Norway, only one contains a runic inscription. In addition to unreadable inscriptions ( afke, Uppland), there are fairly standardized two-part ones: rani: aapnuikur and butfus: faii. (“(G) Rani wields this dart. Botfos cut out ") (Svenskens, Gotland) or audmundr gerdi mik. asleikr a mik (“Audmund made me. Aslik owns me ") (Korsøjården, Norway). With a period of about 1200 g... dates from an umbon with an inscription gunnar gerdi mik. helgi a mik("Gunnar made me, Helgi owns me"). V Greenmount(Ireland) an inscription was found containing the owner's nickname: tomnalselshofopasoerpeta("Dufnal Sea Dog Head wields this sword."). Finally, towards the very end of the period (end XIII century.) the inscription is typically Christian in character: "Ave Maria ..."

In total, more than two dozen junior-runic inscriptions on weapons are known, which, as mentioned above, is an immeasurably smaller share of the total than in the case of older-runic inscriptions. Conclusions that follow directly from the above facts, in general, boil down to the following.

Undoubtedly, the high role that was assigned to runic inscriptions or individual signs applied to weapons. These symbols were given a meaning that went far beyond the usual information broadcast. At the same time, a clear difference between the two eras of runic writing is clearly perceptible. In the Viking Age, when runic epigraphy came close to the state of refined alphabetic writing, and any supernatural content of the runes began to be considered as undoubtedly secondary, the nature of the inscriptions finally changed. Along with the emerging at the very end of the active existence of the runes the formula of a typical Christian prayer call, organically replacing the pagan appeal to the Ases, most of the inscriptions on weapons in the Viking Age gravitated towards an extremely stable formula: “Imarek made me. Someone owns me " with minor variations. Sometimes this inscription is reduced, only the name of the owner remains.

In one case, it can be assumed that the owner and the person who carved the runes (of course, the manufacturer of the weapon) are different people. However, the resulting formula is remarkably stable. Moreover, in fact, in a somewhat abbreviated form, it reproduces the core of the formula characteristic of the most massive type of monuments of junior epigraphy - runestones... It is also very typical for them to indicate at least two characters - the author of the image and the customer, or the customer and the person who is commemorated through the installation of the stone. The reduction of the formula and its extreme laconicism were dictated by the nature of the object - the bearer of the inscription, which did not leave as much space as the surface of the stone. Nevertheless, the addition of a very formalized and extremely stable speech block testifies to the final fixation in consciousness not only of the tradition of drawing runic inscriptions, but also of stereotypical formulations, within which runic writing was mainly thought and realized.

Given the very significant changes that took place with the futhark during second half of the 1st - early 2nd millennium... AD, we come to the conclusion that the stereotypes of thinking reflected in the epigraphy turned out to be much more stable than the traditional runic alphabet.

At the same time, in the overwhelming majority of cases, the inscriptions are purely utilitarian, because they combine the properties of the manufacturer's brand and the owner's hallmark. This reflects the main and main trend, which is a projection of the general runic trend and concluded in the steady desacralization of runic writing, diminishing the role of magical,ritual and dedicatory inscriptions and the growing role of inscriptions of profane, everyday content. Having emerged back in the era of the older runes, during the transition period in continental Europe and on the islands, this trend leads to full triumph of profane inscriptions in the junior period.

As for the older-runic inscriptions on weapons, they demonstrate much less formalization. Actually, the typology of the inscriptions is not very diverse. Five main categories should be distinguished:

1. The proper name of the weapon, most often a single-word or compound epithet, that is, heiti or kenning;
2. Indication of the name of the owner of the weapon;
3. An indication of the person who carved the runes - eril;
4. Magic spell or its abbreviation;
5. Direct dedication of weapons to the ace, counting on help.

The extraordinary difficulty of reading and, moreover, of interpreting some of the inscriptions should deter us from categorical conclusions. However, we note that, as a rule, these types do not intersect, that is, the object usually bears a rather short inscription lying within one of the specified semantic fields. The extraordinary significance of the magical component of runic symbols is obvious. With the instability of spelling, common to older runic monuments, there is a surprisingly stubborn and persistent desire to mark weapons using extremely expressive epithets that completely unequivocally emphasize the aggressive and active or, less often, defensive nature of the weapon. "Goal Striker","Furious", "Penetrating"- it is difficult to imagine more appropriate names for spears or swords. The saying is true L.A.Novotny, indicating that the inscriptions on weapons are primarily the language of warriors and tribal nobility, intended for the barbarously sublime poetic transmission of the feeling of struggle, blood, wounds, weapons, corpses, hunting, etc. This in itself a brilliant and vivid reflection of the turbulent world of the destroyers of the Empire recreates the feverish and warlike atmosphere of an era when each warrior was in a state of permanent struggle for his existence and for victory, an era known to us from the epic and the bloody shade of gold jewelry.

Undoubted personal communication between the weapon and its owner. One does not exist without the other, and vice versa. These inscriptions capture the hope for help in the decisive throw and successful blow, the hope that the shield put up in time will withstand and will not fail. The throwing javelin, the angon, was a very important piece of equipment and at the same time sometimes acted as the main character of the fight. The first all-crushing throw could lead to an unconditional victory even before hand-to-hand combat. Therefore, special attention was paid to him. At the same time, an unsuccessful throw jeopardized the further outcome of the fight. It is because of this that the inscriptions on the spearheads, acting as a kind of symbol of the era, are sometimes so laconic and bright.

The warrior loved his weapon, trusted him, called him with a bright and sonorous name, expecting help in battle, probably, first of all, from the weapon itself, and secondly from the deity responsible for military success. Undoubtedly definite, more or less clearly expressed, personification of the weapon, endowing him with certain features of an animated creature, organically fitting into the stereotypes of pagan thinking and continuing the totemistic tradition of the zoomorph in decorating helmets. In this context, the direct continuation of this tradition of animation is knightly custom give proper names to swords, spears and other weapons. It, like many other features of classical European chivalry, is rooted in the Germanic tradition of the pagan period. "Revived" the sword or spear continued on their way to another world - with the owner, as a burial inventory, or on their own, like most of the finds from swamps of northern Europe... And in fact, when analyzing the inscriptions on weapons, one immediately gets the feeling that the spear, having received its own name, really acquired with it its own unique fate, which was no less glorious and, perhaps, from the point of view of an archaeologist, much longer. than the fate of its owner. So, the Kovel spear was so distant in our minds from its owner that the vicissitudes of his fate - not only the newest, but also the early medieval ones - are really perceived as the adventures of the spear itself and only secondarily as the adventures of an unknown Gothic warrior.

When analyzing the texts of runic inscriptions on weapons, it is tempting to interpret some of the characteristic epithets as Hayti Asov, in particular himself Odin... It is known that written sources give us an extremely diverse palette of Heiti Odin, numbering many dozens of names, moreover, there must have been others. This possibility cannot be denied. In addition, it is Odin who owns one of the few eddic "nominal" weapons - a spear Gungnir... However, none of the texts known to us mentions the runes applied to the spear, but this, of course, does not mean anything.

The whole story with Odin's acquisition of the secret knowledge of runes is closely tied to this type of weapon - it was with a spear that the wisest of the Ases pierced himself, sacrificing himself to himself. Stable axle One - spear - runes, which is reminiscent of the abundance of typical inscriptions on the tips of lances and darts, makes us pay more attention to this - the main and most ancient - type of weapon.

At the same time, there is direct written evidence of the presence of runic symbols and inscriptions on swords. The canonical option is "Speeches of Sigrdriva", which find a direct analogy in the inscriptions on the pommel from Faversham and, possibly, the spears from Holborough:

Runes of victory
if you strive for it, -
cut them out
on the sword hilt
and mark twice
by the name of Tyr!
(Sigrdriva Speeches: 6)

Stanza from "Beowulf" brilliantly illustrates one of the options for applying runes to weapons. Hrothgar, examining the gilded twisted hilt of the sword, sees on the scennum the image of the battle of the deity with the giants and the inscription indicating by whom and for whom the sword was made:

... and shone on gold
runes are clear,
proclaiming
for whom and by whom
this serpentine
the sword has been forged
in those centuries immemorial
together with the cut
twisted handle ...
(Beowulf: 1694)

What part of the handle was meant by the term scennum, it is unknown, however, this inscription typologically corresponds precisely to the transitional form of the older-runic inscriptions of the Anglo-Saxon region, preserving an archaic appearance, but already demonstrating a standardized late non-magical (profane) formula with a mention of the manufacturer / owner. The narrator does not mention specific names when describing the inscription - perhaps it was self-evident for him that it was the owner of the weapon and the master who should be mentioned in an inscription of this kind: the established tradition was assumed “by default”. This type of inscriptions is fully consistent with the find of pommels from Ash-Gilton and possibly from Sarah... Ash-Gilton Find Chronologically, Typologically and BiU "Conceptually" closest to the sword from "Beowulf" and, undoubtedly, is only the tip of the iceberg, inaccessible to our perception and assessment due to the fragmentation of the source fund of the era of "dark ages".

Finally, it is appropriate to make one more assumption. It seems that the maturation and constitution of formalized texts of runic inscriptions on weapons was to some extent associated with the ever-lesser individualization of the forms of weapons themselves. The number of squads grew, the production resources of society increased, and the quality of weapons improved. A sword or spear, while remaining an enduring value and an object of sincere affection for a warrior, nevertheless, to some extent lost individuality... Spearheads, axes and even swords of the Viking era, and even more so the subsequent period, not only became more widespread - the variety of their external forms has definitely decreased. The somewhat less expressiveness of the forms of late weapons - with an increase in its effectiveness - is obvious. Previously, each piece of weaponry was indeed a unique work of weaponry - taken by itself, it seemed to mean more to its owner than in a later time, and was more appreciated. He seemed to have his own face, completely unique and individual. It is in this that the roots of the custom of giving weapons their own names must be sought. The weapon was of extraordinary value, and the engraving of the owner's name on its surface, in any case, in the last place could pursue the goal of designating precisely the property relations - it was already clear to everyone whose spear or sword it was.

The kings of the Viking era undoubtedly supplied their warriors with more or less significant consignments of weapons, ordering them to the blacksmiths. This was the first and very confident step towards the standardization of weapons, making it easier to manufacture and improving quality, but at the same time always steadily leading to depersonalization of things. Popular types of swords have been in service for a long time, unifying to a very large extent. All large and large contingents of vigilantes gathered under one roof in the banquet hall, on the same ship, in the same camp, etc. More and more often it became a situation in which warriors could confuse their weapons. It was during this period that the need for property marks, purely utilitarian marks of the owner, came out of the shadows and became the imperative of the times.

Modern model Such an epigraphic monument is the owner's surname inscribed in a ballpoint pen on the inside of the crown of a peakless cap or cap, which is easy to find on most headdresses in any of the military schools or garrisons. This is a rather "rough" model, but nowadays standardization has also been brought to its logical limit.

The first steps of pre-industrial standardization at the end of the 1st millennium AD destroyed a significant part of the individuality of the weapon, fairly "depersonalizing" it, which was reflected in the change in the stereotype of runic formulas and the degree of their prevalence. The proposed scheme, of course, does not exhaust the essence of the problem, but it seems to be the main direction of its solution.

(C) A.A. Sheds Harbingers of the Vikings. Northern Europe in the 1st - 8th centuries