An objective study can identify structural changes (the expansion of the heart, an increase in liver, swelling, etc.), as well as functional disorders (increase blood pressure, body temperature, etc.).

Patient Survection Stages

When examining the patient, it is advisable to adhere to the following scheme:

Stage I - Examination using basic methods:

1. distribution (subjective study);
2. objective study (general and local inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation);
3. justification of the preliminary diagnosis;

Stage II - Examination using additional methods necessary to confirm the diagnosis and differential diagnostics:

1. drawing up a laboratory and instrumental research plan, specialist consultations;
2. justification and formulation of a detailed final diagnosis (the main disease, its complications and related diseases).

Survey of the patient using basic methods is carried out in all cases of inspection (primary or repeated). Only after applying the basic research methods, the doctor solves the question of which of the additional methods (laboratory and instrumental) is necessary to clarify the diagnosis in this clinical situation. In some cases (sowing blood for sterility, biopsy data, etc.) Additional research methods are crucial for diagnosis.

The main methods of studying the patient's patient

Distribution

Interrow (Interrogate) - a study method based on the analysis and evaluation of experiences and sensations of the patient, as well as on his memoirs about the disease and life. The question is carried out according to a specific scheme and rules.

The general scheme of questioning includes:

1. passport details;
2. analysis of patient complaints;
3. anamnesis of the disease;
4. anamnesis of life.

The complaints analysis provides for the allocation of the main and additional. The main complaints point to the localization of the pathological process, and additional ones on his severity.

The main requirement for collecting anamnesis of the disease is to reveal the dynamics of the pathological process from the beginning of the disease before the patient's admission to the clinic. Consequently, the history of the disease includes three main, chronologically related sections:

1. start;
2. the results of laboratory and instrumental studies;
3. preceding treatment.

Life history includes five sections:

1. physical and intellectual development of the patient (with the allocation of harmful habits and transferred diseases);
2. material and consumer conditions for his life;
3. expert labor anamnesis;
4. allergic history;
5. hereditary history.

Characteristic symptoms (pathognomonic, decisive) are peculiar only to this disease and are not found at other forms. For example, presetrolic noise is observed only in mitral stenosis, finding plasmodium malaria in the blood and mycobacterium tuberculosis in sputum is absolutely pathogenous for these diseases. However, it should be remembered that the isolated characteristic symptoms exists in pathology is not so much; Often they are not allocated immediately, but only in a certain phase of the disease. Therefore, the diagnosis is usually put on the basis of comparing all symptoms.

An objective examination of the patient must begin with a general inspection.

Then go to the study of internal organs.

Inspection (inspectio)

In case of inspection, the general view of the patient and the general condition is satisfactory, moderate, severe and very heavy.

Patient position. If the patient is in bed, but can independently turn, sit down, - this situation is called active.

Very weak or unconscious patients are usually fixed in bed and cannot change their position without any assistance; This condition is called a passive position. In some diseases, patients feel more or less worn only in a certain, forced position. For example, with severe heart disease, the patient as a result of shortness of breath is often forced to take a sedentary position with her bed with legs (orthoploa). With you-sweat, pericade patients are sitting, leaning forward; In some persons suffering from ulcerative diseases of the stomach, pain is eased with the knee-elbow body position.

State of consciousness. There are various degrees of consciousness disorder.

Coma-complete loss of consciousness associated with the defeat of vital centers of the brain. When a coma there is a relaxation of muscles, loss of sensitivity and reflexes, there are no reactions to any stimuli - pain, light, sound. Coma is found in hemorrhages to the brain, diabetes mellitus, severe liver lesions, chronic jade, poisoning.

Sopor - a hibernation state. If a patient is a loud duck or torment to derive from this state, it can answer questions, and then again falls into a deep sleep.

The stupor is a stupidity state when the patient poorly focuses in the environment, answers the questions sluggishly and with the receipt.

Along with oppression, disorders of consciousness are observed, which are based on the excitation of the central nervous system. These include nonsense, hallucinations occurring at high body temperature in the event of infectious diseases, brunt pneumonia, suction typhus, etc.

Facial expression. By expression, it is possible to judge the inner state of the patient. A special expression is observed in fevering patients (Febris): redness of the cheeks, wet glitter eyes, excitement. With severe diseases of the abdominal cavity, accompanied by acute inflammation of the peritoneum, with a very strong diarrhea, the expression of the face in the patient changes dramatically: the eyes are wade, the nose is sharpened, the skin of the face becomes a flabby, pale, with a bluish shade, covered with cold sweat. This expression was first described by hippocratic and called Fades Hyppocratica.

The overall structure of the body. Constitutional Tines (according to M. V. Chernorotsky). According to the general type of the patient, one can judge the structure of the body and the development of the skeleton. There are high, low and medium height people. On average, the growth of men ranges from 160 to 180 cm, women from 150 to 160 cm. The growth above 190 cm is considered to be gigantic, below 140 cm for men and 130 cm for women - dwarf.

According to the structure of the body, there are three main constitutional types of people: asthenics, hyperstics and normostics. Normostic, medium, type is characterized by proportionality in the body structure. These are people with a moderately developed subcutaneous fatty tissue, a strong muscles, a cone-shaped chest, a direct epigastric angle (an angle of convergence of the lower edges of the ribs from a mild-shaped process). The length of the hands, legs and necks in normosts corresponds to the sizes of the body. The characteristic feature of the people of asthenic type is the predominance of longitudinal sizes above the transverse. Subcutaneous fatty fiber and muscular system are developed weakly. Skin thin, dry and pale. The chest is narrow and flat, the ribs are directed by the oblique, the epigastric angle is sharp, the blades are lagging behind the chest. Neck, hands and legs are long.

In persons hypersthenic type, on the contrary, the transverse dimensions are underlined. They are distinguished by a significant development of subcutaneous fatty fiber and powerful muscles. The chest is short, wide, the direction of the ribs is horizontal, the epigastric angle is stupid. Stomach full, neck, hands and legs are short.

These constitutional types differ in functional features. Hyperstrenikov has slowed down the metabolism, they are prone to deposition of adipose tissue, to exchange violations. Asthenikov actively flows the exchange processes, they do not accumulate even normal amounts of adipose tissue. Asthenics are more often sick tuberculosis. There were attempts on the physique to determine the mental peculiarities of a person (character, temperament) and even a predisposition to certain mental illness (schizophrenia, epilepsy, etc.). I. P. Pavlov was an opponent of such definitions and convincingly showed that the main criterion that determines the physiological properties of the organism is the functional state of the central nervous system and primarily its highest department - the cortex of the brain.

Power state. The state of food is determined by the development of the subcutaneous fat layer and muscles (in healthy people of normal nutrition, the thickness of the skin folds on the belly is about 1 cm).

With a normal weight ratio and growth weight in kilograms, approximately equals growth in centimeters minus 100, with amendment to the constitutional type (hyperstics - plus 10%, asthenics - minus 10%).

The state of low nutrition, or exhaustion, is most often caused by insufficient introduction of food into the body (lack of appetite, esophageal, vomiting), poor learning, for example, when inflammation of the small intestine; Increased energy flow (reinforced thyroid function - hyperthyroidism, fever) or metabolic disorders.

Leather and visible mucous membranes. Inspection of the skin and mucous membranes reveals a change in coloring, pigmentation, rash, peeling, hemorrhage, scars, breaks, breakdowns, etc. The patenity of the skin and mucous membranes may be related to the blood loss of acute and chronic character (ulcerative disease, uterine bleeding). Pallor is also observed with anemia, a fainted state. Temporary pallor. Some may occur during the spasme of the skin vessels during the chills, with breasts, cooling, fright.

The abnormal red skin depends mainly on the expansion and overflow by the blood of small vessels of the skin. This is observed in mental excitement. In some people, the feeling of shame is accompanied by the appearance of red spots on the face, neck and chest.

A knot (papula), a tuberculum (tuberculum) represents easily tested cell clusters in the skin. These formations occur sometimes during rheumatism: the limbs appear slightly painful tuberculos with cherry, covered with blusted skin (Erytema in Dosym).

Skin hemorrhages are found in injuries, infectious and toxic lesions of small vessels, avitaminosis.

Humidity of the skin. Skin moisture depends on the sweat separation. Excessive dryness of the skin speaks of the body's depletion of water (for example, with abundant diarins, sugar and non-ferrous diabetes), impaired its nutrition, general exhaustion, myxedema.

Enhanced sweating and increased skin moisture are observed in rheumatism, tuberculosis, base disease, in the case of receiving antipyretic agents, such as aspirin.

Turgor skin. Under the turgor of the skin should be understood its tension. This skin property is determined mainly by feeling, for which two fingers should take the skin into the fold and then release it. The fold with normal turgore quickly spreads. Turgor leather depends on the content of intracellular fluid, blood, lymph and the degree of development of the subcutaneous fiber.

The clinical significance has a lowered turgor, which is noted with a sharp weight lust (cachexia), a large loss of fluid (diarrhea, stenosis of a gatekeeper or esophagus). With a lowered leather, the fold, taken on the stomach or back of the brush, does not frame for a long time.

Condition of hair and nails. The absence or scarcity of the hair cover on the pubic and in the armpits indicates the reduced function of the genital glands. Excessive hair growth and their location in areas free from the hair, indicate some endocrine disorders. Hair loss and their fragility are noted in the base disease, the slope of the hair loss on the head - during syphilis. Early baldness may occur as a family feature and in this case does not have a diagnostic value.

The fragility and laying of nails are observed in violation of vitamin exchange. Nails with fungal lesions (epidermofilation, triprophides) become dull, thickened and crumbling.

The study of lymphatic, muscular and bone systems. The degree of increase, consistency, mobility and painfulness of lymph nodes are determined by inspection and palpation. An increase in lymph nodes may be regional (local) or is systemic. The reactive increase in lymph nodes is developing in the presence of a focus of infection in the course of lymphottock. For example, submandibular and cervical components increase with angina, stomatitis. The multiple increase in lymph nodes is observed in lymphatudine, lymphogranulomatosis, tuberculosis. Dense, bug, painless, skewed with skin lymph nodes are palpable during cancer metastasis. Redness of the skin in the field of lymph nodes, their fluctuation (unscrewing) are found with inflammatory processes in them, when they are purulent melting. Palpation of such nodes is painful.

In case of inspection, muscles determine the degree of their development, as well as paralysis and atrophy, pain.

In the body of a healthy person, even relaxed muscles are always in a state of some voltage. This condition is called muscle tone. A decrease or enhancement of muscle tone is observed under a number of diseases of the central nervous system (paralysis, neuritis, poliomyelitis).

In the study of bones and joints, attention should be paid to such symptoms as pain, thickening, uzura, deformation, swelling of the joints, as well as on the volume of movements.

The method of objective study of organs and systems is described in detail in the sections of private pathology. Here are only general information.

Picking (Palpation)

Palpation is one of the important methods of an objective examination of the patient. Palpation allows you to establish the physical properties of the body area, its temperature, soreness, elasticity, tissue seal, organ borders, etc. Very valuable data for the diagnosis can be obtained by feeling the region of the heart, joints, chest and especially when examining the abdominal organs. The palpation technique is different depending on the region under study, therefore, the palpation data for diseases of various organs is set out in the relevant sections. Palp patient needs clean and warm hands.

Opt (percussion)

Percussion as a research method was introduced into medicine in 1761, Auenboughtrought and is widely used. Percussion can be carried out directly by the pulp of the index finger along the studied area, but it is better to produce it with a finger on your finger.

Express technique:

1. The plaster (finger of the left hand) should be tightly adjacent to the body section.
2. The hammer (middle finger of the right hand) should strike, perpendicular to the finger-plaster.
3. Hammer's finger blows must be medium strength, tearned; They are applied with all the brush, which should be relaxed.

Three main sounds are fed above the body: clear, stupid and tympanic. They, in turn, are characterized by the degree of volume and duration. These properties of the sound of various tissues depend on several reasons: the elastic properties of the tissue, air content in organs and homogeneity of the structure of the organ.

Clear sound (loud, low and long) is detected over the lungs that contain elastic tissue and air. Percussion sound above the muscles, on the contrary, quiet, tall and short - stupid (homogeneous structure of fabric and no air).

Over the hollow organs with elastic walls (intestines, stomach), a tympanic sound is detected. It can have a different tonality, be higher or deaf, which depends on the amount of air contained and the voltage of the elastic walls of the organ (for example, with a large accumulation of gases in the intestine, a loud high tone of a tympanic sound appears).

Auscultation (listening)

The auscultation is mediocre when it is made using a device, and immediately, when a doctor or paramedic listens to the patient directly ear.

Auscultation technique:

1. The narrow end of the stethoscope or the head of the phonenendoscope should fit tightly to the body. The expanded end of the stethoscope or rubber tube of the phoneneoscope is also tightly connected with the ear shell of the exploratory.
2. If the breath through the nose is free, the patient must breathe a nose, if it is difficult - mouth.
3. Breathing should not be very frequent and noisy.

Currently applies mainly auscultation using stethoscopes or foundoscopes of various devices. Listened to the larynx, lungs, aorta and other large vessels, heart and abdomen. Over these bodies, quiet sounds are mainly listened - noises. Normally over the lungs are listening to two main noise: vesicular, or pulmonary, and laryngo-tracheal, or bronchial.

Vesicular noise is listened to the chest at the site of the projection of the pulmonary fabric: in the inter-cup space, above and under the clavicle and below the blades. This sound or noise is manifested at the height of the breath and resembles the sound when pronouncing the letter "f". It occurs when the alveoli is disappeared by air penetrating them from bronchiole.

Laryngo-tracheal, or bronchial, the noise is listening normally above the trachea or in an accelerated process of VII cervical vertebra. In pathological cases, bronchial noise may be brought to the place where vesicular noise is usually heard.

There is a laryngo-tracheal noise in the field of voice cream when air passing during exhalation. This is explained by the fact that during the exhalation the voice gap is narrowed. The more the voice gap or bronchus is narrowed, the noise is longer and higher on the tonality. The sound of bronchial respiration is usually compared with the pronunciation of the letter "X", and during the exhalation this sound is rougher and longer than during the inhalation.

A group of methods of objective psychology is in demand most in the organization of psychological studies. The main methods of the Group rightly recognized observation and experiment. Subsidiary research methods include: testing, survey, analysis of activity. The methods of mathematical modeling and statistical analysis also found widespread use.

The observation method is a deliberate, systematic and targeted perception of the external behavior of a person in order to subsequent analysis and explanation.

Observation is an independent method, but most often it is used in conjunction with any other. For example, observation can be an addition to the experiment. The essence of observation is to notice all the little things, follow the implementation of certain activities, the development of the situation, systematize and group facts.

Depending on the position of the researcher, with respect to the subject studied, the included and not included observation is distinguished.

The observation included is the perception of any phenomenon from the inside when the researcher at the time of observation becomes a member of the organization. Not included observation - observation by side.

Also the search and standardized observation is also distinguished. In search observation, the task is to detect, allocate, unambiguously describe the signs of observation. After the selection of features, their analysis is performed. In standardized observation, the set of features is already specified in the instructions.

For example, you are watching school anxiety. What are her obvious signs? One of the brightest signs is an ordinary shiver. In a state of disturbing excitement, not only hands are trembling, but also the muscles of voice ligaments, which gives the voice characteristic uneven intonation. Another feature of anxiety is redness or pale pale (the so-called vascular, or vasomotor, reaction). A person who worries is often a knockout in speech: a syntactic and intonational failure in the pronouncement of the phrase or a reservation.

Denote the weight of each sign. So, we agree that for a pronounced tremor we will accrue 3 points, for the pronounced vazomotori-ku (wax) - 2 points, and for a single speech knuckle (SRK) - 1 point. Then the fragment of a typical observation protocol will have the following form:

Thus, on this segment of the observation of Petrov received 7 points on the scale of "examination anxiety", and the sidors - 6 points. 46.

Often in practice, based on the false idea that observation is the easiest method, observers resort to natural and unorganized observation under the motto "It is necessary to look at, maybe we will see something." Such an unorganized observation is unscientific. With the right, scientific approach to observation, it is characterized by a number of features that make it effective:

• 1. The presence of the purpose and object of observation. We must answer a question for what we observe and for what purpose.
• 2. The presence of a procedural observation scheme is the same for all observation objects. It is advisable to plan for one session to observe no more than family objects at the same time.
• 3. Availability of signs of observation.

One of the main deficiencies of observation is the subjectivity of the perception of who organizes the observation. How to avoid subjectivity in observation? For this, observation is usually at least two independent observers. At the same time, either all observers simultaneously produce "live" observation, or look through video recordings. Errors due to focusing, incorrect interpretation of instructions on any sign made by one expert will be corrected when agreeing with the results of other experts.

Experiment (from lat. - Sample, experience) - the method of cognition, with which in controlled and managed conditions, the phenomena of reality are investigated.

Modern science uses a variety of types of experiments. Among the huge number of experiments of various types, two most well-known and common: natural (field) and laboratory experiments can be distinguished.

The idea of \u200b\u200ba natural experiment belongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazur. Natural experiment is carried out in natural conditions of life activity. People participating in a natural experiment are not suspected of what they act in the role of the subjects.

The laboratory experiment is carried out in specially created and controlled conditions, as a rule, with the use of special equipment and instruments. A distinctive feature of laboratory experiments is strictly compliance with the conditions of the study and the accuracy of the data obtained. The scientific objectivity and practical significance of data obtained in the laboratory experiment reduces the artificiality of the conditions created. Therefore, there is a problem of transferring data obtained in the laboratory for real conditions of human life. In other words: Does the experimental situation modifies the real life of a person? This question always remains open.

Planning and organization of the experiment.

Planning and organization of the experiment have a decisive impact on the quality of the results obtained. The experimental plan is a project that offers the execution by the researcher alone procedures and the refusal of others.

When planning and conducting an experiment, two or more factors or variables are compared. Condition (factor), variable and controlled by the researcher, is called an independent variable. The condition, the change of which is studied (observed) due to changes in an independent variable, is called a dependent variable.

For the normal course of the experiment, its purity and the correctness of the results it is important to identify independent and dependent variables and eliminate the influence of any other factors. Most of the psychological experiments cannot be carried out in "sterile" laboratory conditions, therefore, they are not excluded the presence of uncontrolled, random factors. It is also necessary to take into account the distortions that may arise during the experiment due to the influence of the experimenter itself.

If the experimental plan has been successfully completed and the appropriate measurements were carried out, the researcher proceeds to the processing of the data obtained. This involves the presentation of the results in the form of tables, graphs, schemes, diagrams, drawings that allow you to interpret the collected data, analyze and identify certain dependencies, draw conclusions, develop recommendations.

Thus, the scientific experiment implies eight of the following steps:

• 1. Statement of the purpose and determination of the problem.
• 2. Analysis of available information, conditions, theoretical models and applied methods capable of solving a dedicated problem.

Z. Formulation of the hypothesis.

• 4. Planning and organization of the experiment.
• 5. Analysis and generalization of the results obtained.
• 6. Check the initial hypothesis based on the results obtained and the final formulation of new facts or relationships.
• 7. Explanation of the problem and forecasting its further development.
• 8. Drawing up a research report.

It is impossible to underestimate not one of the above stages, starting from the formulation of the problem and ending with the reporting of the report.

The peculiarity of this method is that the source of information acts as a verbal message, the judgment of the respondent. Distinguish the variety variation:

• 1) Questioning is a set of ordered on the content and form of questions or points;
• 2) Interviews - oral conversation, full-time survey;
• 3) The conversation is the exchange of views, the conversation between the psychologist and the respondent.

The quality of the survey largely depends on how the respondents can and want to sincerely respond to the questions posed. There are often cases when people refuse to give or deliberately distort their assessment of certain events, find it difficult to answer questions about the motives of their behavior.

It is very important how questions are made up. When preparing a questionnaire, it is necessary to proceed from the following issues of formulating issues:

• 1. The question must comply with the objectives and objectives of the study;
• 2. Each question should be logically separate;

Z. The formulation of the issue should be clear for all respondents, therefore, narrowly special terms should be avoided. Questions must comply with the level of development of respondents, including the level of the least prepared;

• 4. Do not ask too long questions;
• 5. It should be strive for issues to stimulate respondents to actively participate in the survey, increased their interest in the problem under study;
• 6. The question should not inspire the answer. It should be formulated neutral;
• 7. The balance of possible positive and negative answers must be followed. Otherwise, you can inspire the respondent to the focus of answers.

For a more compact arrangement of questions in the questionnaire, they are often presented in tabular form, although working with tables causes difficulties in some people.

Assessing the question of the question, as a whole, it can be noted that it is a means of primary orientation, pre-exploration. The data obtained by questioning outlines the directions of further personality study.

Interview and conversation - more "psychological" form of a survey, rather than survey, because in this case the interaction of people is. The most important condition for the success of the conversation is to install the contact of the researcher with the respondent, in creating a trust atmosphere of communication. The researcher must arrange the respondent, cause it to frankly.

Testing is a method that uses standardized issues and tasks that have a specific scale of values.

For a long time, tests in our country were critically. After the decision of the Central Committee of the VKPB "On the pedology perversions in the system of drug addresses" (1936) tests in the USSR were prohibited. Tests were criticized for their weak theoretical validity, for ignoring individual characteristics of a person, etc. Currently, it is recognized that individual test techniques should be criticized, but not the test method as such.

The development of scientifically based test is a labor-intensive and long-term. The use of tests in practical work requires special training. Unprofessional use of tests can cause harm to personality due to the false interpretation of its data.

Method for analyzing performance results, or projective method

Based on the symbolic transfer of the content of the inner world to the outside world.

In the drawings, in handwriting, in crafts from plasticine, in games with toys, in choosing clothes, interior items, etc. A person loses those impressions he gets in life. Especially needed similar activities for preschoolers. If some strong impressions are not lost, do not draw, i.e. Not responded, but suppressed, displaced the scope of the subconscious, they can turn into an inexplicable system of fears and anxiety, to the source of the internal conflict.

The use of projective methods involves serious psychological training. In order to make informed conclusions about the emotional state of the person and his personal features based on the analysis of the drawings, the characteristics of the handwriting, the high professionalism of the specialist is necessary.

Methods of mathematical statistics.

Mathematical methods in psychology are used as a means of increasing reliability, objectivity, accuracy of the knowledge gained. The main use of these methods are found at the stage of production of the hypothesis and its rationale, as well as when processing the data obtained in the study.

Mathematical methods are used in psychology not as independent, but are included as auxiliary at a certain stage of the experiment. These methods become necessary when the researcher works in the experiment simultaneously with several variables, with a set of hypotheses, involving the involvement in the study of a large array of empirical data.

A number of formal characteristics has a quantitative certainty. However, most psychological phenomena, processes, the properties of such quantitative certainty have no. Often the researcher is important to determine not only their presence or absence, but the intensity of manifestation. For this, the researcher specifically attributes quantitative indicators with high-quality signs. Such a procedure is called classification, or measurement.

The measurement tool is the scale, which must arrange data. With the help of pre-developed scales, all, even the most complex psychological phenomena can be measured.

Psychologists traditionally use such methods of mathematical analysis as simple and combinational groups, the calculation of average values, regression, correlation, dispersion, factor and cluster analysis. We can safely say that modern psychology cannot do without techniques developed in mathematics and statistics.

So, modern psychology uses a wide arsenal of methods. It is important when choosing a specific method to determine the priority of the studied question. Methods themselves are not good, not bad, but they may be more or less useful when answering the questions. Method or combination of methods used should be selected in such a way as to check the accuracy of the hypothesis, theory for a specific situation. The researcher should have accurate information about variables and studied facts, their grouping, choose the research method and own them, examine possible errors arising from objective and subjective reasons.

Table 1.

As in any other independent science, psychology has its own research methods. With their help, the information is collected and analyzed, which is further used as a basis for creating scientific theories or drawing up practical recommendations. The development of science depends primarily on the quality and reliability of research methods, so this issue will always be relevant.

The main methods of psychology can be divided into two groups:

Subjective methods of psychology (observation, survey) - These methods of research based on personal sensations, with respect to the object being studied. After the allocation of psychology into separate science, subjective research methods, received priority development. Currently, these methods continue to be used, and some are even improved. Subjective methods have a number of disadvantages that are in difficulty not biased by the assessment of the object under study.

Objective methods of psychology (tests, experiment) - These methods of research differ from subjective to the fact that the object under study is estimated by third-party observers, which allows to obtain the most reliable information.

Basic research methods used in psychology:

Observation - This is one of the very first and simple methods of psychological research. His essence lies in the fact that the activities of a person are observed by, without any intervention. All seen is documented and interpreted. The following types of this method distinguish: self-surveillance, external, free, standard, included.

Survey (conversation) - The psychological method of the study, in which questions are asked by research participants. The responses received are recorded, while special attention is paid to reactions to certain issues. The advantage of this method is that the survey is carried out in a free style, which allows the researcher to ask additional questions. The following types of survey distinguish: oral, written, free, standard.

Test - The method of psychological research, which allows you to quickly poll a large number of people. In contrast to other methods of psychology, tests have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as have a ready characteristic of the results obtained. Distinguish the following types of tests: objective, projective.

Experiment - The method of psychological research, with the help of which artificial situations can be created and observed for human reactions. The advantage of this method is the fact that it is here that the causal relationships of the studied phenomenon are traced, which allows scientifically explained what is happening. The following types of experiment distinguish: Laboratory, Natural.

In psychological studies, several psychological methods are most often used, which makes it possible to achieve the most accurate results. However, there are situations where the use of several methods is difficult or not possible, then the most suitable method of psychological research is used for this situation.

The main research methods in psychology - as in natural science in general - are observation and experiment . In psychology, each of these general methods acts in various forms; There are different types of observation and experiment. Specific research and research methods include methods testing, survey, product analysis. Wide use in psychology also found mathematical modeling methods, statistical analysis anddr. (Fig.3).

The observation method is a deliberate, systematic and targeted perception of the external behavior of a person in order to subsequent analysis and explanation.. Objective observation in psychology is not aimed at external actions by itself, but on their psychological content; Here, the outer side of the activity is only the initial material of the observation, which should receive its psychological interpretation and be comprehended within a certain theory.

The success of observation and explanation of its results ultimately depends on the state of knowledge in the study area. Based on a certain understanding of the nature of the studied phenomenon, a hypothesis of its dependence on specific factors is put forward, from their manifestation in external behavior. The hypothesis is verified during the observation and can be confirmed, refuted. "Scientifically fruitful objective observation becomes inside, since it is associated with the establishment and inspection of hypotheses."

Observation as a scientific method must meet a number of requirements. It must be selective those. Escrow from a clearly set goal, allocate a certain fragment of the studied reality. Surveillance should be planned andsystematic , those. Based on the plan and is carried out on reading a certain period of time. It is important to fix the studied behavior as much as possible, i.e. Needless fullness Observations.

The objectivity of the observation method increases if the researcher uses technical means, such as a VCR. In such an observation, the researcher is entirely occupied by the position from the outside, and even it is eliminated from the situation. It is not by chance that the ideal option of the method of observation in psychology was considered to be observed using the "Mirror of Gezella", which transmits the light in one direction: the researcher could see everything that happens, remaining invisible. The same effect can be achieved using a video recorder. In other words, a special task is to achieve effect lack of explorer make that the subjects do not know what they are observed for them and behave naturally as under normal conditions

The principal difficulty of objective observation in psychology is related to unambiguous Understanding, interpretation, explanations of external behavioral factors in psychological concepts. The level of experience and qualification of the observer affects the results of the observation. In other words, the external observation can be objective in relation to systematic and complete registration of behavioral facts, but subjective in their psychological interpretation. The acclaimed difficulty can be overcome by using other objective psychology methods.

In pedagogical practice, the method of external observation in its pure form teacher is rare. Pedagogical activity eliminates the position from the outside, the position of an impartial objective and uninterested observer. At the same time, in the process of activity, the teacher displays certain features of the behavior of schoolchildren, according to external manifestations, judges the psychological reasons, on the emotional state, the peculiarities of the perception and understanding of the material, difficulties, etc. The desire to record the psychological features of students in the course of activity, try to comprehend them, to use in their work leads to the formation of important professional quality at the teacher - observation .

Experiment method It is the main method of explanatory psychology. Recall that the status of independent science Psychology has acquired simultaneously with the experimental method, the main task of a psychological experiment, as well as observations, is to make the essential features of the internal mental process available for objective external perception. But from observation, the experiment is characterized by a number of features.

S.L. Rubinshtein allocates four main features of the experiment. Firstly, In experiment the researcher himself causes the phenomenon studied In contrast to observation, in which the observer cannot actively interfere in the situation. Secondly, Experimentator maybe vary, change the conditions of the flow and manifestations of the process being studied. Thirdly, In the experiment it is possible alternated exclusion of individual conditions (variables) in order to establish patterns that determine the studied process. Fourthly The experiment allows to vary also a quantitative ratio of conditions allows mathematical processing obtained in data research .

Three types of psychological experiment are distinguished: laboratory, natural and forming (psychological and pedagogical).

Laboratory psychological experiment It occurs in specially created and controlled conditions, as a rule, using special equipment and appliances. The initial object of the laboratory experiment in psychology was elementary mental processes: sensations, perception, reaction rate. A distinctive feature of the experiment in the laboratory is strictly compliance with the conditions of the study and the accuracy of the data obtained. Of great perfection in the use of a laboratory experiment reached a cognitive psychology that studies human cognitive processes. Cognitive processes amounted to the main area of \u200b\u200blaboratory research of human psychology.

The scientific objectivity and practical significance of data obtained in the laboratory experiment reduces artificiality created conditions. This is due to both the remoteness of tasks solved in the experiment from the real life conditions of the subject, and with the inability to fix the nature of the influence of the experimenter on the test during the study. Therefore, there is a problem of transferring data obtained in the laboratory for real conditions of human life. In other words, does the experimental situation modifies the essential living conditions of a person? This question always remains open in a laboratory psychological study. The use of a laboratory experiment in real pedagogical activities by virtue of its artificiality, abstractness, labor intensity is actually not practiced.

Natural psychological experiment Removes marked limitations of the laboratory experiment. The idea of \u200b\u200bholding a psychological experiment in natural conditions of vital activity of people belongs to the domestic psychologist A.F. Lazur. Natural experiment has grown out of pedagogical practice; Here he received recognition and widespread use.

A.F. Lazursky (1874-1917) - Russian doctor and psychologist; Developed a "characterology" - the psychological concept of individual differences and built a system of classification of personalities ("General and Experimental Psychology", 1912).

The main difference is in combination of experimental research with the naturalness of the conditions. The impact of the researcher on subjects based on the preliminary assumption (hypothesis) on its nature is carried out in the usual conditions of activity or behavior. The subjects involved in the natural experiment are not suspected that they act as subjects.

Pedagogical practice provides great opportunities for the use of a natural experiment. Real pedagogical activity is carried out, as a rule, in several parallels and cyclic. The teacher can vary in different classes. Content, methods, forms, teaching techniques and study the nature of the influence of these changes on the features of the mastering of the material, at the rate of promotion in the study of the subject, on the peculiarities of understanding, memorization, the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to the studied and others.

The experiment in natural conditions of the pedagogical process is combined with observation of the course and the results of its flow. The combination of experiment with observation in learning conditions gives good results for psychological studies of schoolchildren.

The famous psychologist S.L. Volubinshtein wrote: "We study the child, teaching it. We do not refuse to be experimenting in favor of observing the pedagogical process, but we introduce elements of pedagogical impact in the most experiment, building a study by the type of experimental lesson. Teaching a child, we strive not to fix the stage or the level on which the child is located, but help him move from this stage to the next highest stage. In this promotion, we study the patterns of development of children's psyche. "

It can be assumed that the use of educators of the possibilities of a natural experiment contributes to the rapid growth of their professional skills, the formation of pedagogical thinking, brings up creative attitude towards its activities. Famous in our country teachers - innovators - W.A. Samonashvili, I.P. Volkov, I.P.Ivanov, E.N. Hylin, S.N.Lystenkov, V.F. Shahatalov and others - achieved significant success in Training and upbringing schoolchildren thanks to creative experimentation in everyday work.

Forming experiment - This is a method for studying the mental development of children in a specially organized experimental pedagogical process. The creature of this experiment is manifested in its names: converting, creative, educating, training, psychological-pedagogical, method of active formation of the psyche, genetically modeling.

The researcher is not limited to studying the established forms of psyche, registration and explanation of mental development achieved by students, which is characteristic of a statement (laboratory) experiment. On the basis of a preliminary theoretical analysis of the patterns of mental development of children of a certain age or the conditions and nature of the formation of the most important human abilities, a hypothetical model of the formation of studied abilities in specially designed conditions is usually in experimental classes or schools.

The implementation of the developed model is carefully monitored and is estimated by specialists of various profiles - teachers, psychologists, methodologists, doctors, etc. During the experiment, regularities, mechanisms, dynamics, trends in the mental development of schoolchildren are detected. The results of the experiment allow you to confirm, clarify or refute the pre-developed model of the formation of the ability to be studied.

In the forming experiment itself the pedagogical process becomes experimental. In a psychological experimental study, the search and design of new forms of the educational process is carried out, a peculiar "cultivation" of productive forms of cooperation of teachers and schoolchildren and at the same time studying the promising paths of mental development at a certain age stage.

P.Ya. Galperin (1902-1988) - a domestic psychologist, student L.S.Vugotsky; The creator of the theory of phased formation of mental actions.

In the forming experiment, the patterns of formation in preschoolers of cognitive abilities were established (research P.Galperin, L.F.Obukhova, G.I. Minskaya, N.N. Poddyakov, L.A.V.Verger, A.V. Forell, and others ), features and conditions for the transition from preschool childhood to school (research E.E. Shuleshko and others), the possibility and feasibility of the formation of scientific and theoretical thinking among the younger students and is determining the importance for this content and methods of training (studies V.V. Davydova, D.B. Elconina and others). The formative experiment became the main method of domestic pedagogical psychology. Its advantages are the orientation for the development of a student in the educational process, the theoretical validity of the experimental model of the organization of this process, the duration of the study, which guarantees the validity and reliability of the data obtained.

D.B. Elkonin (1904-1984) - a domestic psychologist, student L.S.Vugotsky; The creator of the psychological theory of children's game and periodization of mental development in childhood.

An important advantage of the formative experiment is a new type of scientific practice in pedagogical practice - design and software , The focus of which is not so much to study what is what happened and exists, how much construction, creation, "cultivation" of a possible, future, promising. The indispensable condition for the deployment of the formative psychological and pedagogical experiment is foresight of possible consequences, the responsibility of researchers for the course and results of the experiment , For those involved in it.

The objective methods of psychology also applies testing, Used for purposes psychological diagnosis , To recognize or evaluate states, features, characteristics of a particular person, groups of people, a particular mental function, etc. In this regard the test is similar to the experiment. It also combines them that both methods are a system of tasks offered by the test researcher. The true kinship of the experiment and the test is that the test grows from the experiment , Created on it.

Testing is a method of psychological diagnostics using standardized issues and tasks (tests) having a specific scale of values.

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Lecture 2.

Methods of clinical examination of the patient

All methods for researching the patient are conventionally divided into:

1. Main:

- subjective method (asked),

- objective, or physical methods (inspection, palpation, percussion, auscultation).

The main methods are named so because they are carried out with respect to each patient and only after their use can be solved, what other additional methods are necessary for the patient.

2. Additional:

- laboratory methods, i.e. Study of blood, urine, feces, sputum, pleural fluid, bone marrow, vomit, bile, content of stomach, 12 pans, study of cytological and histological material, etc.

- Instrumental methods with the use of equipment and tools. The simplest instrumental methods are: anthropometry (measurement of growth and body length, body weight measurement, waist circle and hips), thermometry, blood pressure measurement. However, most instrumental methods can only be carried out by specialists. These methods include: ultrasound, x-ray, endoscopic and radioisotope methods, methods of functional diagnosis (ECG, FVD, etc.), etc.,

- consultations of narrow specialists (oculist, neuropathologist, ENT doctor, etc.).

For the majority of additional research requires equipment, tools, reagents, specially trained personnel (radiologists, laboratory technicians, technicians, etc.). Some additional methods are quite heavy tolerated by patients or there are contraindications to their conduct. For high-quality implementation of additional research and obtaining reliable results, the correct preliminary preparation of the patient, which is carried out by a nurse or paramedic.

Subjective method (sample) -the first stage of the examination .

The meaning is asked:

- diagnostic,

- allows you to establish trust relationships with patients, as well as identify the problems of the patient associated with the disease.

Developed a method of questioning a patient (an- anamnestic method) Russian therapist xιх in., Professor G.A. Zakharin.

Information about the patient is obtained from his words about sensations, memories of life and illness. If the patient is in an unconscious state, the necessary information is found out from relatives or accompanying persons.

Distribution is one of the most difficult methods of the patient's study, despite the seeming simplicity. Contact with patients requires an ethical approach and compliance with the rules of medical deontology.

Approximatethe questionnaire implies the identification of only the main complaints and the basic data on the development of the disease and is carried out in cases where it is necessary to quickly establish a preliminary diagnosis and medical care. An indicative question of the patient is often limited to the Feldsher of an emerging ambulance brigade. In all other cases, it is held detailed Distribution according to the generally accepted scheme (component parts of the abrasion):

- General information about the patient (passport details, i.e. patient name, year of birth, address of residence, profession, place of work and position);

- Complaints of the patient main and secondary;

- Anamnesis Morbi (Anamnesis - Memories, History; Morbus - Illness) - Data on the development of the main disease;

- Anamnesis Vitae (Vita - Life) - Data on the patient's life.

Usually, at the beginning, the patient is given the opportunity to freely express themselves as to what led him to the doctor. To do this, ask a general question: "What do you complain about?" Or "what bothers you?". Next, a targeted questioning is carried out, clarify and specify each complaint. Questions should be simple and clear, adapted to the level of overall development of the patient. The conversation is held in a relaxed atmosphere, preferably alone with patients. Complaints of the patient who forced him to seek medical care, i.e. those that the patient puts in the first place are called main(basic, they are usually associated with the main disease). After the detailed characteristics of the main complaints go to identifying additional (secondary) complaints about which the patient forgot to say or did not pay attention to them. It is also important to share complaints and complaints that arise periodically.

Collect Anamnesis Morbi usually begins with a question: "When did you get sick?" Or "When did you feel sick?". Anamnesis Morbi gives an idea of \u200b\u200ball stages of the development of the disease:

a) debut diseases - with what time he considers himself to be sick, as the disease began (from which symptoms, acutely or gradually), which caused the disease, according to the patient;

b) the dynamics of the disease - how the disease developed, the frequency and the reason for exacerbations, stay in the hospital, the sanatorium, which studies were conducted and what their results were carried out, what treatment was carried out (independently and on the appointment of a doctor) and its effectiveness;

c) leading reason to appeal to the doctor; The last deterioration, about which turned the patient (what it was expressed, the reason for the appeal).

The history of the patient is his medical biography. The main goal is to find out the influence of the patient's living conditions for the emergence and course of the disease, to make an idea of \u200b\u200bthe presence of hereditary predisposition to some diseases. The value of Anamnesis Vitae is to identify the risk factors, i.e. Factors that negatively affect health cause pathological changes in the body and can contribute to the development of the disease or provoke its aggravation. The most significant and common risk factors are: incorrect nutrition, obesity, bad habits (alcohol abuse, smoking, drug use and other chemicals), stress, heredity, professional harm, etc.

In order to identify risk factors, the patient consistently responds about childhood, character and conditions of production activities, life, nutrition, harmful habits, transferred diseases, operations and injuries, hereditary predisposition, gynecological (in women), allergological and epidemiological history (contact with infectious patients, invasive research methods, visiting areas with unfavorable with infectious-epidemiological situation, etc.).

In the process of questioning, not only the Feldsher collects information about the patient, but the patient gets acquainted with Feldsher, is an idea of \u200b\u200bhim, about his qualifications, attentiveness, responsiveness. Therefore, the Feldsher must remember the principles of medical deontology, follow its appearance, speech culture, be tactful, take into account the individual characteristics of the patient.

The results of the patient's questioning are described in the history of the disease according to the plan in the form of a professional interpretation of the "patient's words".

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Like all natural and social sciences, psychology has two methods for obtaining facts to be further analyzed - methods of observationand experimentwhich, in turn, have a number of modifications that do not change their entities.

Observationbecomes the method of psychological study only if it not limited to the description of external phenomena, and transitions to the explanation of naturethese phenomena.

The essence of observation is not only one of the registration of facts, but in the scientific explanation of their reasons.

The registration of facts is limited to the so-called everyday observationsin which a person to the touch finds the causes of certain actions and actions.

Last observations differ from scientific observation primarily by their chance, inorganic and free.

They rarely take into account all the essential conditions affecting the occurrence of a mental fact and the flow of it. However, everyday observations, in view of the fact that they are countless and as a criterion have everyday experience, they sometimes give the rational grain of psychological wisdom. Countless everyday psychological observations accumulate in proverbs, sayings and pose some interest to study.

№ 3 Classifications of psychological research methods.

Scientific psychological observationin contrast, there is an essential transition from descriptionobserved fact of behavior to the explanationhis inner psychological essence.

The form of this transition is hypothesis,arising during observation. Her checking or refutation is a matter of further observations. Essentially important requirement for psychological observation is the presence of a clear planas well as fixing the results obtained in special diary.

Variety of observation - psychological analysis of activities,In this case, it seems not to behave itself, but only its product, but essentially the object of study turns out to be mental processes implemented as a result of the action.

So, in children's psychology, a considerable role is played by the study of children's drawings.

The main tool for obtaining new psychological facts and objective scientific knowledge is experimental method.Conquered rights in psychology only over the past hundred years, he currently serves as the main supplier of psychological knowledge and the basis for many theories.

In contrast to observation the psychological experiment involves the possibility of active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject.

Thus, the researcher creates conditions in which the mental fact can be clearly identified, can be changed in the direction desired for the experimenter, can be repeatedly repeated for comprehensive consideration.

The two main types of experimental method are distinguished: laboratoryand natural experiment.

Characteristic sign laboratory experiment -not only that it is carried out in laboratory conditions with the help of special psychological equipment and that the actions of the subject are determined by the instructions, but also the attitude of the subject, who knows that experiment is undergoing it (although, as a rule, does not know what its essence is that Specifically investigate and for what purpose).

With the help of a laboratory experiment, you can explore the properties of attention, features of perception, memory, etc. Currently, the laboratory experiment is often built in such a way that some psychological parties have been modeled in it, which a person performs in the usual conditions (so, the situations of significant emotional stress can be modeled in the experiment, during which the test, the pilot by profession must take meaningful decisions, perform complex, requiring a high degree of coordination of movement, respond to instrument readings, etc.).

Natural experiment(For the first time, A.F.

Lazur in 1910) according to his plan should be eliminated by the tension that arises from the subject who knows that it is experimenting over it, and move research into ordinary, natural conditions (lesson, conversation, game, preparation of homework, etc.) .

Natural experiment, which solves the task of psychological and pedagogical research, is called psychological and pedagogical experiment.

Its role is solely great when studying the cognitive opportunities of students in various age-related stages, when clarifying the specific ways to form a student of a schoolboy, etc.

The differences between the laboratory and natural experiment are currently very conditional and should not be absolisted.

Every science is based on facts. It collects facts, compares them and draws conclusions - establishes the laws of the area of \u200b\u200bactivity that is studied.

Methods for obtaining these facts are called scientific research methods. The main methods of scientific research in psychology - observation and experiment.

Observation. This is a systematic, targeted trace of manifestations of the human psyche under certain conditions. Scientific observation requires a clear goal and planning. It is determined in advance which mental processes and phenomena will be interested in an observer, for which external manifestations can be traced, in what conditions will observe and how it is expected to fix its results.

The peculiarity of observation in psychology is that only facts relating to external behavior (movement, verbal statements, etc. can be directly seen.

d.). Psychologist causing their mental processes and phenomena. Therefore, the correctness of the observation results depends not only on the accuracy of the registration of behavior facts, but also from their interpretation is to determine the psychological meaning.

Observation is usually applied when it is necessary to obtain the initial rally on any side of the behavior, put forward the assumptions about its psychological reasons. Checking these assumptions is most often carried out with the help of a psychological experiment.

Psychological observation must be targeted: the observer must clearly represent and understand that it is going to observe and to observe, otherwise the observation will turn into fixation of random, minor facts. The observance should be carried out systematically, and not from the case.

Therefore, psychological observation, as a rule, requires more or less prolonged time. The longer the observation, the more facts can accumulate an observer, the easier it will be typical of the random, the deeper and more reliable will be its conclusions.

Experimentin psychology, it is that a scientist (experimenter) deliberately creates and modifies the conditions in which the studied person (subject) is valid, sets certain tasks to him and on how they are solved, judging about the processes and phenomena arising from this.

Conducting a study under the same conditions with different subjects, the experimenter may establish age and individual characteristics of mental processes in each of them. In psychology, two main types of experiment are used: laboratoryand natural.

Laboratory experiment They are carried out in specially organized and in a certain sense of artificial conditions, it requires special equipment, and sometimes the use of technical devices.

An example of a laboratory experiment can serve as a study of the recognition process using a special installation, which allows on a special screen (type of television) to gradually present a different number of visual information (from zero to the subject of items in all its details) to find out at what stage a person finds out the image thing. The laboratory experiment facilitates a deep and comprehensive study of the mental activities of people.

However, along with advantages, the laboratory experiment has certain disadvantages.

The most significant disadvantage of this method is its some artificiality, which under certain conditions can lead to a violation of the natural course of mental processes, and therefore, to improper conclusions. This lack of a laboratory experiment to a certain extent is eliminated with the organization.

Natural experimentcombines the positive aspects of the method of observation and laboratory experiment.

The naturalness of the observation conditions is maintained here and the accuracy of the experiment is introduced. The experiment is being introduced. It is built in such a way that the subjects are not suspected that they are subject to psychological research - this ensures the naturalness of their behavior.

For the right and successful conduct of a natural experiment, you must comply with all those requirements that are presented to the laboratory experiment. In accordance with the objective of the study, the experimenter selects such conditions that ensure the most vivid manifestation of his psychological activities of interest to its parties.

One of the varieties of experiment in psychology - sociometric experiment.

It is used to study the relationship between people, the provisions that occupies a person in a particular group (factory team, school class, a kindergarten group). In the study of the group, everyone responds to a number of issues relating to the choice of partners for collaboration, recreation, classes. According to the results, you can determine the most and least popular person in the group.

Conversation method, questionnaire. Certain importance and methods of psychological research related to the collection and analysis of verbal testimony (statements) of the subjects are: a conversation method and a questionnaire method.

With their correct conduct, they allow you to identify individual-psychological features of the personality: inclinations, interests, tastes, attitudes towards life facts and phenomena, other people, to themselves.

The essence of these methods is that the researcher sets the test pre-prepared and carefully thoughtful questions to which he answers (orally, or in writing when using the questionnaire).

The content and form of questions are determined, firstly, the objectives of the study and, secondly, the age of the subjects. In the process conversations Questions are changed and complemented depending on the responses of the subjects. Answers carefully, accurately recorded (you can use a tape recorder). At the same time, the researcher monitors the character of speech statements (the degree of confidence of answers, interest or indifference, the nature of expressions), as well as the behavior, expression of the face, the facial and the subjects.

Questioning It is a list of issues that are given to those studied to persons for a written response.

The advantage of this method is that it allows you to relate to easily and quickly get a massive material.

The lack of this method in comparison with the conversation is the lack of personal contact with the subject, which does not allow to vary the nature of the questions depending on the answers. Questions should be clear, clear, understandable, should not inspire one or another answer.

The material conversations and questionnaires is value when it is supported and controlled by other methods, in particular supervision.

Tests.The test is a special type of experimental study, which is a special task or task system.

The subject performs the task, the execution time of which is usually taken into account. Tests are used in the study of abilities, the level of mental development, skills, the level of learning, as well as in the study of the individual characteristics of mental processes.

The test study is characterized by a comparative simplicity of the procedure, it is briefly, carried out without complex technical devices, requires the simplest equipment (often it is simply a form with tasks texts).

The result of the test solution allows a quantitative expression and thus opens up the possibility of mathematical processing. We also note that in the process of test research does not take into account the influence of numerous conditions, which one way or another affect the results - the mood of the subject, its well-being, attitude to testing.

Attempts are unacceptable with tests to establish the limit, the ceiling of the capabilities of this person, predict, predict the level of its future success.

Studying performance. The results of people are the books created by them, paintings, architectural projects, inventions, etc.

d. on them can be aware of the extent to judge the peculiarities of activity, which led to their creation, and the mental processes and qualities included in this activity. Analysis of the results of activity is considered a subsidiary study method, since it gives reliable results only in combination with other methods (observation, experiment).

Introspection. A self-observation is called observation and description of a person of the flow of certain mental processes and experiences.

Independent value As a method of direct study of the psyche based on the analysis of own mental manifestations, the self-surveillance method has nothing. The cause of its limited application is an explicit possibility of involuntary distortion and subjective interpretation of the observed phenomena.

In Soviet children and pedagogical psychology, this is a peculiar form of a natural experiment, since it is carried out in the natural conditions of life and the activities of children.

The essential feature of the psychological and pedagogical experiment is the fact that it is aimed at studying, but an active, targeted change, transformation, formation of one or another mental activity, psychological qualities of the person. Accordingly distinguish two of its kind - teachingand raisingpsychological and pedagogical experiment.

So, psychology use a number of methods.

Which one is rational to apply, solve in each individual case depending on the tasks and object object.

At the same time, not one method is usually used, and a number of methods, mutually complementary and controlling each other.

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In this article, we would like to provide an idea of \u200b\u200bthe methods of psychological research of both children and adults. Often, at the reception of a psychologist, parents are incomprehensible, why a specialist conducts certain actions, asks questions that do not relate to the problem directly, etc.

Consider research methods based on four main positions:

a) non-experimental psychological methods;
b) diagnostic methods;
c) experimental methods;
d) forming methods.

Not experimental methods

Observation It is the most commonly used in the psychology of research methods. Observation can be used as an independent method, but usually it is organically included in other research methods, such as conversation, study of products, various types of experiment, etc.

An observation and self-observation is a targeted, organized perception and registration of the facility and is the oldest psychological method.

Distinguish non-systematic and systematic observation:

• non-systematic observation is carried out during the field research and is widely used in ethnopsychology, developmental psychology, social psychology.

  For a researcher conducting non-systematic observation, it is important not to fix the causal dependencies and the strict description of the phenomenon, but the creation of a certain generalized picture of the behavior of the individual or group under certain conditions;

• systematic observation is carried out according to a specific plan.

  The researcher identifies the registered behavioral features (variables) and classifies the conditions of the external environment. The system of systematic observation complies with the correlation research (it will be discussed below).

Distinguish between "solid" and selective observation:

• in the first case, the researcher fixes all the features of behavior available for the most detailed observation.
• in the second case, it only pays attention to certain parameters of behavior or types of behavioral acts, for example, only the frequency of manifestation of aggression or the time of the interaction of the mother and the child during the day, etc.

Observation can be carried out directly or using observational devices and means of fixing results.

They include: audio, photo and video equipment, special observation cards, etc.

Fixation of observation results can be carried out in the process of observation or delayed. The problem of the observer is of particular importance. The behavior of a person or group of people is changing if they know that they are observed by the included observation, it assumes that the observer himself is a member of the group whose behavior he explores.

In the study of the individual, such as a child, the observer is in constant, natural communication with him.

In any case, the identity of a psychologist playing a crucial role - his professionally important qualities. With open observation after a certain time, people get used to a psychologist and begin to behave naturally, if he himself does not provoke a "special" attitude towards himself.

Observation is an indispensable method if it is necessary to investigate natural behavior without interference from the outside to the situation when it is necessary to get a holistic picture of what is happening and reflected by the behavior of individuals in its entirety. Observation can act as an independent procedure and viewed as a method included in the experimentation process.

Objective methods of psychology.

The results of the observation of the subjects during the fulfillment of the experimental task are the most important additional information for the researcher.

Questioning, as well as observation, is one of the most common research methods in psychology. Questioning is usually carried out using observation data, which (along with data obtained using other research methods) are used in the formulation of the questionnaire.

There are three main types of questionnaires used in psychology:

• these are questionnaires made up from direct issues and aimed at identifying the recognizable qualities of the subjects.

  For example, in the questionnaire aimed at identifying the emotional attitude of schoolchildren to its age, such a question was used: "Prefer to become an adult now, immediately, or want to stay by a child and why?";

• these are a selective type questionnaires, where there are several ready-made answers to each question of the questionnaire; The task of the subject is the choice of the most suitable answer. For example, it is possible to use such a question to determine the student's attitude towards various educational subjects: "Which of the training items is the most interesting?".

  And as possible answers, you can offer a list of training items: "Algebra", "Chemistry", "Geography", "Physics", etc.;

• these are questionnaires - scales; When answering questions from questionnaires, the subject should not just choose the most correct of the ready-made answers, but to analyze (evaluate in points) correctness from the proposed answers.

  For example, instead of the answers "Yes" or "No", the subjects can be offered a five-point response scale:
  5 - sure yes;
  4 - more yes, than not;
  3 - Not sure, I do not know;
  2 - no more than yes;
  1 - not confident.

There are no fundamental differences between these three types of profiles, all of them are only different modifications of the survey method. However, if the use of questionnaires containing direct (and the more indirect) questions require a preliminary qualitative analysis of the answers, which greatly makes it difficult to use quantitative methods of working out and analyzing the data obtained, then the scales are the most formalized type of questionnaires, as they allow you to conduct a more accurate type Quantitative analysis of questionnaire data.

Conversation - Specific psychology method of studying human behavior, since in other natural sciences communication between the subject and the object of the study is impossible.

The dialogue between two people, during which one person identifies the psychological features of the other, is called the conversation method. Psychologists of various schools and directions widely use it in their research.

The conversation is included as an additional method into the experiment structure at the first stage, when the researcher collects primary information about the subject, gives it instruction, motivates, etc., and at the last stage - in the form of an experimental interview.

Researchers distinguish a clinical conversation, part of the "clinical method", and a focused survey "face to face" - interview. Content Conversations can be logged in fully or selectively depending on the specific objectives of the study. In the compilation of complete protocols, the psychologist can use a dictoon.

Compliance with all the necessary conditions for conducting a conversation, including collecting preliminary information about the subjects, makes this method a very effective means of psychological research.

Therefore, it is desirable that the conversation is carried out taking into account the data obtained using such methods as observation and surveillance. In this case, its goal may include verification of preliminary conclusions arising from the results of psychological analysis and obtained when using these primary orientation methods in the studied psychological characteristics of the subjects.

Monographic method.

This research method cannot be embodied in any one technique. It is a synthetic method and is specified in the aggregate of a wide variety of non-experimental (and sometimes experimental) techniques. The monographic method is used, as a rule, for a deep, careful study of the age and individual characteristics of individual subjects with the fixation of their behavior, activities and relationships with others in all major areas of life.

At the same time, researchers strive, based on the study of specific cases, identify the general patterns of the structure and development of certain mental entities.

Typically, psychological studies use not one method, but a whole set of various methods that mutually control and complement each other.

Diagnostic methods.

Diagnostic research methods include various tests, i.e.

methods allowing the researcher to give quantitative qualifications to the studied phenomenon, as well as various techniques of high-quality diagnostics, with which are detected, for example, various levels of development of psychological properties and characteristics of the subjects.

Test - Standardized task, the result of which allows you to measure the psychological characteristics of the subject.

Thus, the purpose of the test study is the test, the diagnosis of certain psychological characteristics of a person, and its result is a quantitative indicator, correlated with previously established relevant standards and standards.

The use of certain and specific tests in psychology is most clearly manifested by the general theoretical installation of the researcher and the entire study. Thus, in foreign psychology, test studies are usually understood as a means of identifying and measuring congenital intellectual and characteristic features of the subjects.

In domestic psychology, various diagnostic methods are considered as a means of determining the cash level of these psychological features. It is precisely because the results of any testing characterize a cash and comparative level of human mental development, due to the influence of many factors, usually uncontrolled in test tests, the results of the diagnostic test may not and should not correlate with the possibilities of a person with the features of its further development, i.e.

these results do not have prognostic value. Can not these results serve as a basis for the adoption of certain psychological and pedagogical measures.

The need to absolutely accurately comply with the instructions and use of the same type of diagnostic survey materials imposes another substantial limitation on the widespread use of diagnostic methods in most applied areas of psychological science.

Because of this restriction, a fairly qualified conduct of a diagnostic survey requires a special (psychological) training, possession of a special (psychological) preparation, possession, not only material and instructions of the used test technique, but also methods of scientific analysis of the data obtained.

So, the difference between diagnostic methods from non-experimental methods is that they do not simply describe the studied phenomenon, but also give this phenomenon quantitative or qualitative qualifications, measure it.

The total feature of these two classes of research methods is that they do not allow the researcher to penetrate the phenomenon, do not reveal the patterns of its change and development, do not explain it.

Experimental methods.

In contrast to the non-experimental and diagnostic methods, the "Psychological Experiment" involves the possibility of active intervention of the researcher in the activities of the subject in order to create conditions, clearly reveal the psychological fact.

The specificity of the experimental methods is thus in the fact that they suggest:

• a) the organization of special conditions of activity affecting the studied psychological features of the subjects;
• b) Changes in these conditions during the study.

In psychology there are three types of actually experimental methods:

• natural experiment;
• modeling experiment;
• laboratory experiment.

Natural (field) experimentAs the name itself says this method, is most close to non-experimental research methods.

The conditions used in carrying out a natural experiment, it is not organized by an experimenter, but life itself (in a higher educational institution, for example, they are organically included in the educational process). The experimenter in this case only uses the combination of various (contrasting, as a rule) the conditions of the tests and fixes with the help of non-experimental or diagnostic techniques the studied psychological features of the subjects.

Modeling experiment. When conducting an experimental experiment, the subject operates according to the instructions of the experimenter and knows what is involved in the experiment as a subject.

The characteristic feature of the experiment of this type is that the behavior of the subjects in the experimental situation simulates (reproduces) at different levels of abstraction is quite typical action for life situations or activities: memorizing various information, choice or setting goals, performing various intellectual and practical actions, etc. . The simulator experiment allows you to solve a wide variety of research tasks.

Laboratory experiment - A special type of experimental method - involves conducting research in a psychological laboratory equipped with special devices and devices.

This type of experiment, which also differs in the greatest artificiality of experimental conditions, is usually used in the study of elementary mental features (sensory and motor reactions, the selection response, differences in sensory thresholds, etc.) and much less often - when studying more complex mental phenomena (thinking processes, speech functions, etc.).

The laboratory experiment more corresponds to the subject matter of the psychological research.

Forming methods.

All research methods described above are distinguished by the statement: the description of the measurement and the explanation is exposed to empirical, spontaneously established (or, in the extreme case, simulated in narrow and artificial framework of a laboratory experiment) features and levels of mental development.
The use of all these methods does not imply the tasks of a significant change in the presentation of the study, the formation tasks.

Such a fundamentally new research goal requires the use of special forming methods.

The formative research methods in psychology include various varieties of the so-called social experiment, the object of which is a certain group of people:

• transforming experiment
• psychological and pedagogical experiment,
• forming experiment
• experimental genetic method
• method of phased formation, etc.

The use of forming research methods is associated with the restructuring of certain characteristics of the educational process and identifying the influence of this restructuring on the age, intellectual and characteristic features of the subjects. Essentially, this research method acts as a means of creating a wide experimental context to use all other methods of psychology.

The resulting experiment is often used to compare the influence of various learning programs for the mental development of the subjects.
Forming an experiment is:

• mass experiment, i.e.

  statistically significant (this means that its area is a minimum - school, pedagogical team);

• long, prolonged experiment;
• the experiment is not for the sake of the experiment, but for the sake of the implementation of a general general peace concept in a certain field of psychology (age, children's, pedagogical and other industries);
• the experiment is integrated, requiring joint efforts of psychologists-theorists, psychologists-practitioners, psychological studies, didactics, methodists, etc.

  And therefore, this is an experiment flowing in special institutions where all this can be organized.

It should be noted that in the process of the development of psychology, not only theories and concepts, but also research methods change: they lose the contemplative, stating character, become formative or, more precisely transforming.

The leading type of research method in the experimental field of psychology becomes a forming experiment.

Tags: Methods of psychological research and analyticsCheetsAgnostic techniques

Measurement in psychological study

During the psychological study, the characteristics studied may receive a quantitative expression, such as the scores on the tests of the test.

The resulting quantitative data of the experiment is then subjected to statistical processing.

The measurement carried out in a psychological study can be defined as attributing the numbers studied phenomena, which is carried out according to certain rules.

The measured object is compared with a certain standard, resulting in its numerical expression.

Coded in numeric information allows the use of mathematical methods and identify that without circulation to a numerical interpretation could remain hidden. In addition, the numerical representation of the studied phenomena allows to operate with complex concepts in a more abbreviated form. It is these circumstances that the use of measurements in any science, including psychology, is explained.

In general, the research work of a psychologist conducting experiments can be represented in the following sequence:

Researcher (psychologist)

2. Subject of research (mental properties, processes, functions, etc.)

3. Test (subject subject)

4. Experiment (measurement)

5. Experimental data (numeric codes)

6. Statistical processing of experimental data

7. Result of statistical processing (numeric codes)

8. Conclusions (Printing Text: Report, Diploma, Article, etc.)

Recipient of scientific information (head of the course, graduation or candidate work, customer, reader, articles, etc.).

Any type of measure implies the presence of units of measurement. Unit of measurement This is the "measuring wand", as S. Stevens said, which is a conditional standard for the implementation of certain measuring procedures.

In the natural sciences and technology, there are standard units of measurement, for example, degrees, meter, amp, etc.

Psychological variables for isolated exceptions do not have their own measuring units. Therefore, in most cases, the value of the psychological feature is determined using special measuring scales.

According to S. Stevens, there are four types of measuring scales (or measurement methods):

1) nominative (nominal or name scale);

2) ordinal (ordinary or ranging scale);

3) interval (scale of equal intervals);

4) the scale of relationships (scale of equal relationship).

All names in brackets are synonymous with the original concept.

The process of assigning quantitative (numeric) values \u200b\u200bavailable from the information researcher is called coding.

In other words, coding is such an operation, with which the experimental data is given a form of a numeric message (code).

The application of the measurement procedure is possible only to four above methods.

Moreover, each measuring scale has its own, different from the other form of a numerical representation, or code. Therefore, the encoded signs of the studied phenomenon, measured by one of the names of the scales, are recorded in a strictly defined numeric system, determined by the features of the scale used.

Measurements carried out using the two first scales are considered high-quality, and the last scales are quantified. With the development of scientific knowledge, a quantitative description is becoming more and more increasingly based on the measurement methods.

At the same time, two specific goals are pursued:

1. Increase and evaluation of the degree of output accuracy. Quantitative data allow compared to high-quality descriptions to achieve a higher degree of accuracy and make it possible for making more informed solutions.

Formulation of laws. The purpose of each science is to describe the significant relationship between the studied phenomena. If these relationships can be quantified in the form of functional dependencies, the prognostic possibilities of nature formulated in this way increase significantly.

Nominative scale (Name scale)

The measurement in the nominative scale is to assist any property or a sign of a certain designation or symbol (numerical, alphabone, etc.).

In fact, the measurement procedure is reduced to the classification of properties, grouping of objects, to combining them into classes, provided that objects belonging to one class are identical (or similar) to each other with respect to any feature or properties, while objects who differ in this feature fall into different classes.

In other words, when measuring on this scale, a classification or distribution of objects is carried out (for example, the types of personality character accentuation) on non-cycle classes, groups.

There may be several such non-passing classes.

Subjective research method

A classic example of measuring on a nominative scale in psychology is a splitting of people in four temperaments: Sanguine, choleric, phlegmatic and melancholic.

The nominal scale determines that different properties or signs are qualitatively different from each other, but does not imply any quantitative operations with them.

So, for the signs measured on this scale, it is impossible to say that some of them are more, and some less, some better, and some worse. It can only be argued that the signs that have fallen in different groups (classes) are different. Last and characterizes this scale as high quality.

Let us give an example of the measurement in the nominative scale. The psychologist studies the motives of dismissal from work:

a) did not suit the earnings;

b) uncomfortable replacement;

c) bad working conditions;

d) uninteresting work;

e) conflict with bosses, etc.

The simplest nominative scale is called dichotomic.

When measuring the dichotomic scale, the measured features can be encoded by two symbols or numbers, for example, 0 and 1, or letters a and b, as well as any two characters different from each other.

An indication measured by a dichotomic scale is called alternative.

In a dichotomic scale, all objects, signs or studied properties are divided into two non-cycling classes, while the researcher sets the question of "manifested himself" whether his sign is interested in for the test or not. For example, 23 women participated in the study of 30 subjects, which can be put in the figure 0, and 7 men encoded 1.

Let us give more examples related to measuring on a dichotomic scale:

• the subject responded to the questionnaire or "yes" or "no";
• someone voted "for", someone "against";
• man or "extrovert" or "introvert", etc.

In all listed cases, two non-cycle sets are obtained, in relation to which you can only calculate the number of individuals with one or another feature.

the number of subjects, phenomena, etc., which came to this class (group) and possessing this property.

Ordinal (ranking, ordinary) scale

Measurement on this scale dismested the entire set of measured features to such sets that are connected with each other like "more - less" relations, "above - below", "stronger - weaker", etc. If in the previous scale it was insignificant, in what order the measured signs are located, then in the ordinal (rank) scale, all signs are located in rank - from the greatest (high, strong, smart, etc.) to the smallest (low, weak, weak, stupid, etc.) or vice versa.

A typical and very well known for all the example of the ordinal scale is school ratings: from 5 to 1 point.

In order (rank) scale should be at least three classes (groups): for example, answers to the questionnaire: "Yes," "I do not know", "no".

Let us give an example of the measurement in the ordinal scale.

The psychologist is studying the sociometric statuses of team members:

1. "Popular";

2. "Preferred";

3. "Neglectable";

4. "Isolated";

5. "Rejected".

Interval scales (interval scale)

In the scale of intervals, or interval, each of the possible values \u200b\u200bof the measured values \u200b\u200bwill be from the nearest distance.

The main concept of this scale is an interval that can be defined as a share or part of the measured property between two adjacent positions on the scale. Interval size - the value is fixed and constant on all parts of the scale.

When working with this scale, the measured property or item is assigned the corresponding number. An important feature of the scale of the interval is that it does not have a natural reference point (zero is conditional and does not indicate the absence of the measured property).

So, in psychology, semantic differentials are often used.

Osgood, which is an example of measuring on the interval of various psychological characteristics of the personality, social attitudes, value orientation, subjective personal meaning, various aspects of self-esteem, etc.:

Scale relationship (scale of equal relationship)

The scale of relations is also called a scale of equal relationships. . A feature of this scale is the presence of a firmly fixed zero, which means the complete absence of any property or a sign.

The scale of relations, in fact, is very close to the interval, because if it is strictly fixed the beginning of the reference, then any interval scale turns into a relationship scale.

It is in the scale of relations that are produced accurate and urgent measurements in such sciences, like physics, medicine, chemistry, etc.

Let us give examples: gravity force, heart rate, reaction rate. Basically, the measurement on the scale of the relationship is made in the sciences close to psychology, such as psycho-physician, psychophysiology, psychogenetic. This is due to the fact that it is very difficult to find an example of a mental phenomenon that could potentially be absent in human activity.

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Methods of psychological research

Psychology, like any other science, has its own methods. Research methods are techniques and means that receive information necessary for making practical recommendations and the construction of scientific theories. The development of any science depends on how those used by it methods are perfect, as far as they are reliable and correct. All this is true and in relation to psychology.

The phenomena studied by psychology are so complex and diverse, so difficult for scientific knowledge, that throughout the development of psychological science, its successes directly depended on the degree of perfection of the methods of research used.

Psychology stood out into independent science only in the middle of the XIX century, so it is very often relied on the methods of other, more "old" sciences - philosophy, mathematics, physics, physiology, medicine, biology and history. In addition, psychology uses the methods of modern sciences, such as computer science and cybernetics.

It should be emphasized that any independent science has only inherent methods. There are such methods in psychology. All of them can be divided into two main groups: subjective and objective.

Subjective methods are based on self-esteem or privileges of the subjects, as well as in the opinion of researchers about a particular observed phenomenon or information obtained. With the allocation of psychology in independent science, subjective methods received priority development and continue to be improved at present. The first methods of studying psychological phenomena were observation, self-surveillance and survey.

Observation method In psychology is one of the oldest and at first glance the most simple.

It is based on a systematic observation of people's activities, which is carried out in ordinary life conditions without any deliberate intervention from the observer.

Observation in psychology involves a complete and accurate description of the observed phenomena, as well as their psychological interpretation. This is exactly the main goal of psychological observation: it should, based on the facts, to disclose their psychological content.

Observation- This is a method that all people use. However, scientific observation and observation, which most people use in everyday life, have a number of significant differences.

Scientific observation is characterized by systematic and is carried out on the basis of a certain plan in order to obtain an objective picture. Consequently, scientific surveillance requires special training, during which special knowledge and promoting objectivity of the psychological interpretation of quality are purchased.

Observation can be carried out in a variety of options.

For example, the method of enabled observation is quite wide. This method is used in cases where the psychologist himself is a direct member of the events. However, if under the influence of the personal participation of the researcher, his perception and an understanding of the event can be distorted, it is better to contact outside observation, which allows you to more objectively judge the events.

The included observation in its content is very close to another method - self-observation.

Introspection, i.e., monitoring its experiences, is one of the specific methods used only in psychology. It should be noted that this method besides advantages has a number of shortcomings.

First, it is very difficult to observe your experiences. They or vary under the influence of observation, or completely stop. Secondly, when self-observed it is very difficult to avoid subjectivism, since our perception of what is happening has a subjective color.

Thirdly, it is difficult to express some shades of our experiences in self-observation.

However, the self-surveillance method is very important for a psychologist. Fabricating in practice with the behavior of other people, a psychologist seeks to understand his psychological content, turns to his experience, including the analysis of his experiences.

Therefore, in order to work successfully, the psychologist must learn to objectively assess its condition and its experiences.

Self-surveillance is often used under the experimental conditions.

In this case, it acquires the most accurate character and it is customary to be called experimental self-observation. Its characteristic of it is that the person's survey is carried out at exactly accounted for experience conditions, in those moments that most interest the researcher. In this case, the self-surveillance method is very often used in conjunction with the survey method.

Interview It is a method based on obtaining the necessary information from the surveyed issues themselves and answers.

There are several survey options. Each of them has its advantages and disadvantages. There are three main types of survey: oral, written and free.

Oral surveyUsually applied in cases where it is necessary to monitor the reactions and behavior of the subject.

This type of survey makes it deeper than a written, penetrate into a human psychology, since the issues defined by the researcher can be adjusted in the process of research depending on the characteristics of the behavior and reactions of the subject. However, this version of the survey requires more time to conduct, as well as the availability of special training from the researcher, since the degree of objectivity of the responses very often depends on the behavior and personal characteristics of the researcher himself.

Written survey Allows you to cover a greater number of people for a relatively short time.

The most common form of this survey is a questionnaire. But its disadvantage is that it is impossible to anticipate the reaction of the subjects under its questions and change its content during the study.

Free survey - A variety of written or oral survey, in which the list of asked questions is not defined in advance. When interviewing this type, it is possible to flexibly change the tactics and content of the study, which allows you to get a variety of information about the subject.

At the same time, the standard survey requires less time and that most importantly, the information received about a specific subject may be compared with information about another person, since in this case the list of issues does not change.

Attempts to quantify psychological phenomena began to be taken from the second half of the 4th century, when it became necessary to make psychology more accurate and useful science.

But even earlier, in 1835, the book of the Creator of Modern Statistics A. Ketle (1796-1874) "Social Physics" was published. In this book, Ketle, relying on the theory of probabilities, showed that its formulas allow to discover the subordination of the behavior of people with some laws.

Analyzing the statistical material, it received permanent values \u200b\u200bthat give the quantitative characteristics of such human acts as marriage, suicide, etc.

These acts were previously considered arbitrary. And although the concept formulated by Ketle was inextricably linked with the metaphysical approach to public phenomena, it introduced a number of new moments. For example, Ketle expressed the idea that if the average number is constant, then it should be a reality comparable to physical, thanks to which it becomes possible to predict various phenomena (including psychological) based on statistical laws.

for the knowledge of these laws, it is hopeless to study every person individually. The object of studying behavior should be large masses of people, and the main method is variational statistics.

Already the first serious attempts to solve the problem of quantitative measurements in psychology allowed to open and formulate several laws that bind the power of human sensations with incentives expressed in physical units affecting the body.

These include the laws of Boger-Weber, Weber-Ferehner, Stevens, which are mathematical formulas, with which the connection between physical incentives and human sensations is determined, as well as the relative and absolute thresholds of sensations. Subsequently, mathematics widely entered psychological studies, which at a certain extent increased the objectivity of studies and contributed to the transformation of psychology into one of the most appropriate from a practical point of view of sciences.

The widespread introduction of mathematics into psychology has determined the need to develop methods that allow multiple-type studies repeatedly, t.

e. She demanded to solve the problem of standardization of procedures and techniques.

The main meaning of standardization is that in order to ensure the lowest probability of error, when comparing the results of psychological surveys of two people or several groups, it is necessary first of all to ensure the use of identical methods, stable, t.

e. Regardless of the external conditions that measure the same psychological characteristic.

These psychological methods include tests. Its popularity is due to the possibility of obtaining accurate and high-quality characteristics of the psychological phenomenon, as well as the ability to compare the results of the study, which is primarily necessary for solving practical problems.

From other methods, tests are distinguished by what they have a clear procedure for collecting and processing data, as well as the psychological interpretation of the results obtained.

It is customary to allocate several test options: test tests, task tests, projective tests.

Test questionnaire As the method is based on the analysis of the responses of the subjects for questions that allow you to obtain reliable and reliable information on the presence or severity of a certain psychological characteristic.

The judgment about the development of this characteristic is carried out on the basis of the number of answers that coincided with their content with the submission of it. Test task It involves obtaining information on human psychological characteristics based on the analysis of the success of the implementation of certain tasks. In the tests of this type, the subject is proposed to perform a certain list of tasks. The number of tasks performed is the basis for judgment on the presence or absence, as well as the degree of development of certain psychological quality.

Most tests in determining the level of mental development belongs to this category.

One of the very first attempts to develop tests made F. Galton (1822-1911). At the International Exhibition in London in 1884, Galton organized an anthropometric laboratory (in the future translated into the South Kensington Museum in London).

Over nine thousand subjects passed through it, which was measured along with growth, weighing, etc. various types of sensitivity, reaction time and other sensorobic qualities. Tests and statistical methods proposed by Galton, in the future were widely used to solve practical issues of life.

It was the beginning of the creation of applied psychology, called "Psychotechnics".

Subjective research method

french psychologist A. The wine created one of the first psychological tests - a test for an intelligence assessment. At the beginning of the twentieth century The French government instructed Bina to make a scale of intellectual abilities for schoolchildren in order to use it for the correct distribution of schoolchildren on learning steps. Subsequently, various series of tests are created by various scientists. Their focus on the operational decision of practical tasks led to the rapid and widespread distribution of psychological tests.

For example, Münsterberg (1863-1916) proposed tests for professional selection, which were created as follows: Initially, they were checked on the workers group who had achieved the best results, and then they were subjected to newly accepted.

Obviously, the prerequisite for this procedure was the idea of \u200b\u200binterdependence between the mental structures necessary for the successful performance of activities, and those structures due to which the subject copes with tests.

During the First World War, the use of psychological tests has become massive.

At this time, the United States was actively preparing for the joining war. However, they did not have such a military potential as other warring parties. Therefore, before joining the war (1917), military authorities appealed to the largest psychologists of E.

Torndayku (1874-1949), R. Yerksu (1876-1956) and G. Wipple (1878-1976) with a proposal to head the solution to the application of psychology in military affairs. The American Psychological Association and Universities quickly unfolded work in this direction. Under the leadership of Yerks, the first group tests were created for a massive assessment of suitability (mainly on intelligence) of conscripts for service in various types of troops: Alfa Test for the competent and army test "Beta" for illiterate.

The first test was similar to the verbal tests of A. Binin for children. The second test consisted of non-verbal tasks. 1,700,000 soldiers and about 40,000 officers were examined.

The distribution of indicators was divided into seven parts. In accordance with this, the subjects were divided into seven groups. In the first two groups included persons with the highest abilities to fulfill the duties of officers and subject to the relevant military educational institutions. Three subsequent groups had average indicators of the abilities of the studied set of persons.

At the same time, the development of tests as a psychological method was carried out in Russia.

The development of this direction in the domestic psychology of that time is associated with the names of A. F. Lazur (1874-1917), G. I. Rossolimo (1860-1928), V. M. Bekhtereva (1857-1927) and P. F. Lesgafta ( 1837-1909).

Today, tests are the most widely used method of psychological research. Next, it is necessary to note the fact that the tests occupy an intermediate position between the subjective and objective techniques.

This is due to a large variety of test techniques. There are tests based on the self-destruction of the subjects, such as test questionnaires. When performing these tests, the subject may consciously or unconsciously affect the test result, especially if he knows how his answers will be interpreted. But there are more objective tests. To their number, first of all, the projective tests must be attributed.

This category of tests does not use the self-defaults of the subjects. They suggest free interpretation by the researcher performed by the tasks. For example, the psychologist determines its emotional state for the most preferred for the test selection of color cards. In other cases, the subject presents pictures with the image of an indefinite situation, after which the psychologist proposes to describe the events reflected in the picture, and on the basis of the analysis of the interpretation of the test situation, there is a conclusion about the features of his psyche.

However, projective test tests have increased requirements for the level of training and experience in the practical work of the psychologist, as well as require a sufficiently high level of intellectual development at the subject.

Objective data can be obtained using an experiment - a method based on creating an artificial situation in which the property studied is highlighted, manifests itself and is estimated to be best.

The main advantage of the experiment is that it allows you to reliably other psychological methods to draw conclusions about the causal relations of the studied phenomenon with other phenomena, scientifically explain the origin of the phenomenon and its development. There are two main varieties of experiment: laboratory and natural.

They differ from each other by the experimental conditions.

The laboratory experiment involves the creation of an artificial situation in which the studied property may be best appreciated. The natural experiment is organized and is carried out in conventional life conditions, where the experimenter does not interfere in the course of the events occurring, fixing them as they are.

One of the first method of the natural experiment began to use the Russian scientist A. F. Lazur. The data obtained in the natural experiment is best complied with the typical life behavior. However, it should be borne in mind that the results of a natural experiment are not always accurate due to the lack of an experimenter with the possibility of strict control over the influence of a variety of factors on the studied property. From this point of view, the laboratory experiment wins accuracy, but at the same time heifies to the degree of conformity of the life situation.

Another group of psychological science methods form modeling methods.

They should be attributed to an independent class of methods. They apply when the use of other methods is difficult.

Their feature is that, on the one hand, they rely on certain information about a particular mental phenomenon, and, on the other hand, when using them, as a rule, the participation of subject or taking into account the real situation is not required. Therefore, it is very difficult to attribute a variety of modeling techniques to the category of objective or subjective methods.

Models can be technical, logical, mathematical, cybernetic, etc.

the mathematical modeling is used in mathematical modeling, which reflects the relationship between variables and the relationship between them, reproducing elements and relations in studied phenomena. Technical modeling involves the creation of a device or device, according to its action resembling what is subject to study. Cyber \u200b\u200bmodeling is based on the use of concepts from the field of computer science and cybernetics to solve the psychological tasks.

Logical modeling is based on ideas and symbols used in mathematical logic.

The development of computers and software for them gave impetus to modeling mental phenomena based on the laws of the computer, as it turned out that the mental operations used by people, the logic of their reasoning when solving problems are close to operations and logic, on the basis of which computer programs work.

This led to attempts to imagine and describe the behavior of a person by analogy with the work of the computer. In connection with these studies, the names of the American scientists of the village of Miller, Yu Galantera, K. Pribrama, as well as the Russian psychologist L. M. Vecher, were widely known.

In addition to these methods, there are other techniques for learning mental phenomena.

For example, a conversation is a survey option. From the survey, the conversation method is of greater freedom of procedure. As a rule, the conversation is carried out in a relaxed atmosphere, and the content of the issues varies depending on the situation and the characteristics of the subject.

another method is the method of studying documents, or analysis of human activity. It should be borne in mind that the most effective study of mental phenomena is carried out with the integrated use of various methods.

We will not consider the history of domestic psychology in detail, but we will stop at the most significant stages of its development, since the psychological schools of Russia have long gained deserved fame worldwide.

A special place in the development of psychological thought in Russia is occupied by the works of M.

V. Lomonosov. In his work on rhetoric and physics, Lomonosov develops materialistic understanding of sensations and ideas, talks about the primaryness of matter. Especially brightly, this idea was reflected in his theory of light, which was subsequently supplemented and developed by G. Helmholz. According to Lomonosov, it is necessary to distinguish between cognitive (mental) processes and mental qualities of a person.

The latter arise from the ratio of mental abilities and passions. In turn, he considers the actions and suffering of man by the source of passion. Thus, in the middle of the hiii century. The materialistic foundations of domestic psychology were laid.

The formation of domestic psychology took place under the influence of French enlighteners and materialists Hiii in.

This influence is clearly noticeable in the works of Ya. P. Kozelsky and the psychological concept of A. N. Radishchev. Speaking about the scientific works of Radishchev, it is necessary to emphasize that in his writings, he establishes the leading role of speech for the entire mental development of man.

In our country, psychology as an independent science began to develop in the Xih century. A large role in its development at this stage was the works of A. I. Herzen, who spoke of "Acts" as a significant factor of human spiritual development.

It should be noted that the psychological views of domestic scientists in the second half of the nineteenth century. Significantly contradicted a religious point of view on mental phenomena.

One of the most striking works of that time was the work of I. M. Sechenov "Brain Reflexes". This work made a significant contribution to the development of psychophysiology, neuropsychology, physiology of higher nervous activity. It should be noted that Sechenov was not only a physiologist whose works created a natural science basis for modern psychology.

Sechenov from early youth was fond of psychology and, according to S. L. Rubinstein, was the largest Russian psychologist of that time. The sechens-psychologist not only put forward a psychological concept, in which he identified the subject of scientific knowledge of psychology - mental processes, but also had a serious impact on the formation of experimental psychology in Russia. But perhaps the greatest importance of his scientific activity is that it influenced research V.

M. Bekhtereva and I. P. Pavlova.

Pavlov's works were of great importance for global psychological science. Thanks to the opening of the conditional reflex mechanism, many psychological concepts were formed and even directions, including behaviorism.

Later, at the turn of the centuries, experimental studies were continued by such scientists as A. F. Lazur, N. N. Langhe, G. I. Chelza. A. F. Lazur was engaged in a lot of personality issues, especially the study of the character of a person.

In addition, he is known for its experimental work, including the natural experiment proposed by it.

Starting a conversation about the experiment, we cannot but call the name N. N. Lange - one of the founders of experimental psychology in Russia. He is known not only to the study of the feeling, perception, attention. Lange created at Odessa University one of the first laboratories of experimental psychology in Russia.

Simultaneously with experimental psychology in Russia at the end of the Xih - early twentieth century.

other scientific psychological directions are developing, including general psychology, zoopsychology, child psychology. Psychological knowledge began to be actively used in the clinic S. S. Korsakov, I. R. Tarkhanov, V. M. Bekhterev. Psychology has become peaked in the pedagogical process. In particular, the works of P. F. Lesgaft received wide fame, dedicated to the typology of children.

A particularly prominent role in the history of domestic pre-revolutionary psychology played G.

I. Chelza, who was the founder of the first and oldest psychological institute in our country. Preaching the positions of idealism in psychology, Chelvan could not engage in scientific research after the October Revolution. However, new talented scientists came to replace the founders of domestic psychological science. It with.

L. Rubinstein, L. S. Vygotsky, A. R. Luria, who not only continued to study their predecessors, but also raised an equally famous generation of scientists. These include B. G. Ananev, A. N. Leontyev, P. Ya. Galperin, A. V. Zaporozhets, D. B. Elkonin. The main works of this group of scientists belong to the period of the Zo 60s of the XX century.

Subjective method

the method of knowledge and descriptions of social phenomena in history and sociology, the nature and degree of influence of the subjective on the objective are taken into account. Developed by People's theorists Lavrov and Mikhailovsky. His philosophical prerequisites - the representations of D. Yuma about the boundaries of the knowledge defined by the possibilities of human experience, B. Concept

Boweer about a critical personality (see a critically thoughtful personality) as an engine of history. Lavrova and Mikhailovsky also occupied the questions set by O. Const, - about the limits of the intervention of the subject of knowledge in the natural course of public events.

Both rejected, following the right, as unsatisfactory, metaphysical thinking systems. Metaphysics turned out to be unable to combine the "truth of the theoretical sky" with the "true practical land".

In search of new paths in philosophy and sociology, it is necessary to rely on self-evident truths. One of these truths is the recognition that the natural forces of nature does not depend on the person, his thoughts and desires, and in the same way on other grounds.

There are living personality here. They fully consciously set concrete goals and achieve their implementation. Hence, "social goals can be achieved exclusively in personalities" (Lavrov).

In the natural sciences, truth is achieved with the help of strict objectively "verified" research methods. These methods are relying on the recognition of the regulatory value of the law of causality. In the case, the law of causality is modified. The existence acts herein in the form of the desired, the required adjustment. In general, it is studying (and changes it) is not a certain infrequent spirit (or abstract subject), but "a thinking, feeling and wishing person."

In natural and social knowledge, there is something in common. And natural science and sociology are pushing "to the existence of a fact, for its probable causes and investigations, for its prevalence, etc.". Unlike the fact of nature, approval or censure to-ryno senselessly, the assessment of a public fact considered supporters of S.

m., has for the subject of knowledge mostly vital importance. Therefore, in social knowledge, the indications of the "desirability or undesirable" of a fact with one or another t. Personality constantly peers his trial over public phenomena (facts), assessing them or making their sentence to them, the truth of which depends on the degree of development of its moral consciousness.

"The sociologist does not have, so to speak, the logical law, the right to eliminate a person from his works, as it is, with all his grief and desires" (Mikhailovsky). S. m. Is, consequently, a way to know, with a rum, the observer puts himself mentally in the position of the observed.

This determines the "size of the study area legally". S. m. It is intended to establish the degree and nature of the impact of the subjective to objective. It guarantees preventing distortion by the subject of the knowledge of objective testimony of the subject or event.

Such a method explained Mikhailovsky, "does not oblige anything to turn away from the general compatible forms of thinking"; It uses the same techniques and methods of scientific thinking - induction, hypothesis, analogy. Its feature is another: he involves counting the nature and admissibility of the intervention of the subjective in the objective.

F. Engels noted that, with his t. S., in the known limits of S. m., It is better to call a "mental method" to the "mental method", for example, because it implies an appeal to a moral feeling (P. letter

Subjective method

L. Lavrov dated November 12-17, 1873). S. M. Allows, in Mikhailovsky, to detect and justify the public ideal necessary for the personality. If I, he argued, "Throwing all sorts of phantoms, I look at reality directly in my eyes, then at the sight of her ugly sides, I naturally born the ideal, something different from reality, desirable and in my extreme understanding is achievable."

The concept of the ideal allows you to deeper to understand the moral side of the story: the ideal is able to "give the prospect of history in her whole and in its parts." Presentations about the ideal, happiness have the greatest value for the personality ("under what conditions can I feel the best?").

They define a lot in her self-knowledge and understanding not only their destination, but also the meaning of history. The task of the sociologist is, therefore, in order to reflect the idea of \u200b\u200bjustice and morality and, looking at the height of this ideal, more or less approaching the understanding of the meaning of phenomena of public life. To this end, a sociologist is called upon to reject undesirable, indicating its detrimental consequences, and to offer desirable, approaching the ideal.

Relying on S.M., Ph.D. ideologues made the conclusion about the undesirable development in Russia capitalism as a building fraught with negative social consequences, and the desirability of socialism as an ideal of public progress.

Based on these criteria and should, in their opinion, act a critically thoughtful personality.