Give the following concepts of latitudinal zonality. What is a latitudinal zonality? Manifestation on the mainland
Under the latitudinal (geographical, landscape) zonality implies a natural change in various processes, phenomena, individual geographical components and their combinations (systems, complexes) from the equator to poles. The zonality in elementary form was also known as scientists of ancient Greece, but the first steps in the scientific development of the theory of world zonality are associated with the name of A. Humboldt, who at the beginning of the XIX century. Substituted an idea of \u200b\u200bthe climatic and phytogeographic zones of the Earth. At the very end of the XIX century. V. V.Dokucheev elevated a latitudinal (on its terminology horizontal) zonality in the rank of world law.
For the existence of a latitude zone, there are enough two conditions - the presence of the stream of solar radiation and the shag-formation of the Earth. Theoretically, the flow of this flow to the earth's surface decreases from the equator to the poles in proportion to the latitude cosine (Fig. 3). However, some other factors that also have an astronomical nature, including the distance from the ground to the Sun, affect the actual insolation magnitude. As the sun removes from the Sun, its rays becomes weaker, and at a fairly far distance, the difference between polar and equatorial latitudes loses its value; So, on the surface of the planet Pluto, the calculated temperature is close to -230 ° C. With too much approximation to the Sun, on the contrary, in all parts of the planet it turns out too hot. In both extreme cases, the existence of water in the liquid phase, life is impossible. The earth is thus the most "successful" is located in relation to the sun.
The slope of the earth's axis to the plane of the ecliptic (at an angle of about 66.5 °) determines the uneven flow of solar radiation for the seasons, which significantly complicates the zonal distribution
Heat and exacerbates zonal contrasts. If the earth's axis was perpendicular to the plane of the ecliptic, then each parallel would receive almost the same amount of solar heat throughout the year and there would be almost a seasonal change of phenomena. The daily rotation of the Earth, which causes the deviation of moving bodies, including air masses, to the right in the northern hemisphere and left - in South, makes additional complications in the zonality scheme.
The mass of the Earth also affects the nature of the zonality, although indirectly: it allows the planet (in contrast, for example, from "
171 Koya »Moon) Hold the atmosphere, which serves as an important factor in transformation and redistribution of solar energy.
With a homogeneous real composition and absence of irregularities, the amount of solar radiation would change on the earth's surface strictly by latitude and it would be the same on the same parallel, despite the complicating effect of the listed astronomical factors. But in a complex and inhomogeneous epigosphere medium, the flow of solar radiation is redistributed and undergoes a variety of transformation, which leads to a violation of its mathematically correct zonality.
Since solar energy serves as a practically the only source of physical, chemical and biological processes underlying the functioning of geographic components, the latitudinal zonality should inevitably appear in these components. However, these manifestations are far from unambiguous, and the geographical mechanism of zonality is quite complicated.
Already passing through the thickness of the atmosphere, the sun's rays are partially reflected, and also absorbed by the clouds. By virtue of this, the maximum radiation coming to the earth's surface is observed not at the equator, but in the belts of both hemispheres between the 20th and 30th parallels, where the atmosphere is most transparent for sunlight (Fig. 3). Over the dry contrasts of the transparency of the atmosphere are more significant than above the ocean, which is reflected in the figure of the corresponding curves. The curves of the latitudent distribution of radiation balance are somewhat smoother, but it is clearly noticeable that the surface of the ocean is characterized by higher numbers than sushi. The most important consequences of the shif-and-zonal distribution of solar energy include the zonality of air masses, the circulation of the atmosphere and moisture revolution. Under the influence of uneven heating, as well as evaporation from the underlying surface, four main zonal type of air masses are formed: equatorial (warm and wet), tropical (warm and dry), boreal, or mass temperate latitudes (cool and wet), and arctic, and in Southern hemisphere Antarctic (cold and relatively dry).
The difference in the density of the air masses causes impaired thermodynamic equilibrium in the troposphere and mechanical movement (circulation) of the air masses. Theoretically (without taking into account the effect of the rotation of the Earth around the axis), air flows from heated hazing essential latitudes were to rise up and spread to the poles, and from there, cold and heavier air would be returned in the surface layer to the equator. But the deflection action of the rotation of the planet (Coriolis strength) makes significant amendments to this scheme. As a result, several circulation zones or belts are formed in the troposphere. For equatorial
172 Allen belts are characterized by low atmospheric pressure, sewed, upstream air flows, for tropical - high pressure, winds with eastern component (trade winds), for moderate - reduced pressure, Western winds, for polar - reduced pressure, winds with oriental components. In summer (for the corresponding hemisphere), the entire atmosphere circulation system shifts to "its" pole, and in the winter to the equator. Therefore, in each hemisphere, three transition belts are formed - subequatorial, subtropical and subarctic (subanctic), in which the types of air masses are replaced by season. Due to the circulation of the atmosphere, zonal temperature differences on the earth's surface are somewhat smoothed, but in the northern hemisphere, where the land area is much larger than in the southern, the maximum heat supply is shifted to the north, about 10 to 20 ° C. sh. From ancient times, it is customary to distinguish between five thermal belts on Earth: two cold and temperate and one hot. However, this division is of a purely conditional nature, it is extremely schematically and geographically important. The continual nature of the temperature change in the earth's surface makes it difficult to distinguish between thermal belts. However, using the landscape's latitudinal change as a complex indicator, you can offer the following range of heat belts that replacing each other from the poles to the equator:
1) polar (arctic and antarctic);
2) subogenous (subarctic and subanctic);
3) Boreal (cold-temperate);
4) subboral (heat-moderate);
5) before subtropical;
6) subtropical;
7) tropical;
8) subequatorial;
9) Equatorial.
The zonality of the atmosphere and moistening is closely connected with the zonality of the atmosphere. In the distribution of precipitation via latitude, there is a kind of rhythmic: two maxima (the main one on the equator and secondary in boreal latitudes) and two minima (in tropical and polar latitudes) (Fig. 4). The amount of precipitation, as is well known, does not yet determine the conditions of moisture and moisture supply of landscapes. To do this, it is necessary to relate the number of annually precipitation precipitation with the amount that is necessary for the optimal functioning of the natural complex. The best integral indicator of the need for moisture is the amount of evaporation, i.e., the limit evaporation, theoretically possible when data climatic (and above all temperature
) conditions. G. N. Vysotsky for the first time used in 1905. The specified ratio for the characteristics of the natural zones of European Russia. Subsequently, N. N. Ivanov, regardless of G. N. Vysotsky, introduced an indicator into science who had known as moisturizing coefficientVysotsky - Ivanova:
K \u003d g / e,
where g.- annual precipitation; E.- the annual amount of evaporation 1.
1 For the comparative characteristic of atmospheric moistening, the dry index is also used. RFLRproposed by M.I. Budyko and A. A. Grigoriev: where R.- annual radiation balance; L.- hidden heat of evaporation; g.- annual precipitation. In his physical meaning, this index is close to the indicator, reverse TOVysotsky-Ivanova. However, its use gives less accurate results.
In fig. 4 It can be seen that latitudinal changes in precipitation and evaporation do not coincide and significantly have even the opposite character. As a result on a latitudinal curve TOin each hemisphere (for sushi), two critical points are distinguished, where TOpasses through 1. TO-1 corresponds to the optimum of atmospheric moistening; for K\u003e1 Moisturization becomes redundant, and when TO< 1 - insufficient. Thus, on the surface of the sushi in the general form, the equatorial belt of excessive humidification can be isolated, two symmetrically located on both sides of the equator of the belt of insufficient moistening in low and medium latitudes and two belts of excessive moistening in high latitudes (see Fig. 4). Of course, this is a strong generalized, averaged picture, which does not reflect, as we will see in the future, gradual transitions between the belts and significant long-term differences within them.
The intensity of many physico-geographical processes depends on the ratio of tagotossecurity and moisturizing. However, it is easy to notice that latitudinal zonal changes in temperature conditions and moisturizing have different focus. If the solar heat reserves are generally increasing from the poles to the equator (although the maximum is somewhat shifted into tropical latitudes), then the moisturizing curve has a sharply expressed wave character. Not touching the methods of quantitative assessment of the ratio of heat supply and humidification, make the most common patterns of changing this ratio of latitude. From the poles to about the 50th parallel, the increase in heat supply occurs under conditions of permanent excess of moisture. Next, with the approach to the equator, an increase in heat reserves is accompanied by a progressive dryness gain, which leads to a frequent change of landscape zones, the greatest variety and contrast of landscapes. And only in a relatively non-erupted strip on both sides of the equator, a combination of large heat reserves with abundant moisture is observed.
To assess the effect of climate on the zonality of other components of the landscape and the natural complex as a whole, it is important to take into account not only the average annual values \u200b\u200bof the indicators of heat and moisture and availability, but also their regime, i.e. Intrance change. Thus, for moderate latitudes, the seasonal contrast of thermal conditions is characterized in relatively uniform intraholochy distribution of precipitation; In a subequatorial belt, with small seasonal differences in temperature conditions, the contrast between the dry and wet seasons is sharply expressed, etc.
Climatic zonality is reflected in all other geographic phenomena - in flow processes and hydrological mode, in the process of fevering and forming the ground
175 waters, formation of the crust of weathering and soil, in the migration of chemical elements, as well as in the organic world. Zonality is clearly manifested in the surface thicker of the ocean. Especially bright, in a certain extent an integral expression, geographical zonality finds in vegetable cover and soils.
Separately, it should be said about the zonality of the relief and the geological foundation of the landscape. In the literature you can meet the statements that these components do not obey the law of zonality, i.e. Abonal. First of all, it should be noted that we should divide the geographical components on zonal and avonal unlawful, because in each of them, as we will see, the influences of both zonal and avonal patterns are manifested. The relief of the earth's surface is formed under the influence of so-called endogenous and exogenous factors. The first includes tectonic movements and volcanism having an abonal nature and creating morphostructural features of the relief. Exogenous factors are associated with the direct or indirect participation of solar energy and atmospheric moisture and the sculptural shapes created by them are distributed on earth zonal. It is enough to remind about the specific forms of the ice relief of the Arctic and Antarctic, thermocarbon depressions and the beating strucks of subarctic, ravines, beams and the sedental stocks of the steppe zone, the ec-shapes and selfless salt sopes of the desert, etc. In forest landscapes, powerful vegetation cover restrains the development of erosion and causes the prevalence of the "soft" weaker relief. The intensity of exogenous geomorphological processes, for example, erosion, deflation, car-state formation, significantly depends on latitudinal and zonal conditions.
The structure of the earth's crust also combines avon and zonal features. If the erupted rocks have unconditionally abonal origin, the sedimentary thickness is formed under the direct influence of the climate, the vital activity of organisms, soil formation and cannot but wear zonality printing.
Throughout the geological history, sedimentation (lithogenesis) was not very detaine in different zones. In the Arctic and Antarctic, for example, unsorted chip material (moraine) accumulated, in the taiga - peat, in the deserts - crumb breeds and salts. For each specific geological era, you can restore the picture of the zones of the time, and each zone will be inherent in its types of sedimentary rocks. However, during the geological history, the landscape zone system has undergone repeated changes. Thus, the results of lithogenesis were issued on a modern geological map
176 all geological periods when the zones were not at all like now. Hence the external film of this card and the absence of visible geographical patterns.
From what has said it follows that zonality cannot be viewed as a simple imprint of the modern climate in the earth's space. Essentially landscape zones are spatio-temporary educationthey have their age, their history and changeable both in time and in space. The modern landscape structure of the epigeosphere was mainly in the Cenozoa. The equatorial zone is the greatest antiquity, as the zonality is removed to the poles, it is experiencing increasing variability, and the age of modern zones decreases.
The last substantial restructuring of the global system of zonality, which captures mostly high and moderate latitudes, is associated with the continental olelions of the Quaternary period. The oscillatory displacements of the zones continue here and in the post declaration. In particular, for the last millennium there was at least one period when the taiga zone has moved to the northern outskirts of Eurasia. The tundra zone in modern borders originated only after the subsequent retreat of Taiga to the south. The reasons for such changes in the position of the zones are associated with the rhythms of cosmic origin.
The action of the law of zonality is most fully affected in a relatively thin contact layer of the epigeospheres, i.e. In the actual landscape sphere. As it removed from the surface of the sushi and ocean to the external borders of the epigeosphere, the influence of zonality is weakening, but does not disappear completely. The indirect manifestations of zonality are observed at large depths in the lithosphere, almost in the entire stratisphere, i.e., the thickness of sedimentary rocks, which was already mentioned with zonality. Zonal differences in the properties of artesian waters, their temperature, mineralization, chemical composition are traced to a depth of 1000 m or more; The horizon of fresh groundwater in the zones of excess and sufficient moisture can reach the power of 200-300 and even 500 m, whereas in arid zones the power of this horizon is negligible or it is not at all. On the ocean bed, the zonality is indirectly manifested in the nature of the bottomals that have mainly organic origin. It can be believed that the law of zonality extends to the entire troposphere, since its most important properties are formed under the influence of the subaral surface of the continents and the world's ocean.
In domestic geography, a long time was underestimated the importance of the law of zonality for human life and social production. Judgments V.V.Dokucheev on this topic
177 Like an exaggeration and manifestation of geographical determinism. The territorial differentiation of population and the economy is inherent in its patterns that cannot be fully reduced to the action of natural factors. However, deny the influence of the latter on the processes occurring in human society would be a gross methodological error, fraught with serious socio-economic consequences, which all historical experience and modern reality convinces us.
Various aspects of the manifestation of the law of latitudinal zonality in the sphere of socio-economic phenomena are considered in more detail in Ch. four.
The law of zonality finds its most complete, comprehensive expression in the zonal landscape structure of the Earth, i.e. In existence of the system landscape zones.The landscape zone system should not be submitted in the form of a series of geometrically correct solid strips. Another V. V.Dokucheev did not think of his zones as an ideal belt form, strictly distinguished by parallel. He emphasized that nature is not mathematics, and zonality is only a scheme or law.As the landscaped zone continued, some of them are broken, some zones (for example, the zone of wide forests) are developed only in the peripheral parts of the continents, others (deserts, steppes), on the contrary, are in the in-district districts; The boundaries of the zones are more or less deviated from parallels and places acquire a direction close to the meridional; In the mountains, the latitudinal zones seem to disappear and are replaced by altitude belts. Such facts gave rise to the 30s. XX century Some geographers argue that latitudinal zonality is not at all universal law, but only a special case characteristic of large plains, and that its scientific and practical significance is exaggerated.
In reality, various kinds of violations of zonality do not refute its universal meaning, but only they say that it is manifested in an unequal in various conditions. Any natural law acts in different conditions in various conditions. This also applies to such simple physical constants as the water freezing point or the amount of gravity acceleration: they are not violated only under conditions of a laboratory experiment. In the epigeosphere at the same time there are many natural laws. Facts, at first glance, not laid in the theoretical model of zone with its strictly latitudinal zones, indicate that zonality is not the only geographical pattern and it is impossible to explain the entire complex nature of territorial physico-geographical differentiation.
178 pressure maxima. In moderate latitudes of Eurasia, the differences in the middle jar of air temperatures on the western periphery of the mainland and in its inner extremely continental part exceed 40 ° C. In the summer, in the depths of the continents, warmer than on the periphery, but the differences are not so great. A generalized idea of \u200b\u200bthe degree of oceanic influence on the temperature regime of the continentality of the climate. There are various ways to calculate such indicators based on the annual amplitude of the average monthly temperatures. The most successful indicator that takes into account not only the annual amplitude of air temperature, but also the daily, as well as the lack of relative humidity in the dry month and the breadth of the point, suggested N.N.Ivanov in 1959 by adopting the average planetary value of the indicator for 100%, the scientist broke the whole range of values \u200b\u200bobtained by him for different points of the globe, for ten belts of continentality (in brackets are given in percent):
1) extreme oceanic (less than 48);
2) Oceanic (48 - 56);
3) moderate oceanic (57 - 68);
4) marine (69 - 82);
5) weak-sea (83-100);
6) weakly continental (100-121);
7) moderately continental (122-146);
8) continental (147-177);
9) sharply continental (178 - 214);
10) Extremely continental (more than 214).
On the scheme of the generalized continent (Fig. 5), the belt of the continentality of the climate is located in the form of concentric strips of the wrong shape around the extremely continental nuclei in each hemisphere. It is not difficult to note that almost all the latitudes continental transfers varies widely.
About 36% of atmospheric precipitation falling on the surface of the sushi have oceanic origins. As it moves to the depths of sushi, sea air masses lose moisture, leaving most of it on the periphery of the continents, especially on the slopes facing the ocean. The greatest long-term contrast in the amount of precipitation is observed in tropical and subtropical latitudes: abundant monsoon rains on the eastern periphery of the mainland and extreme aridity in the central, and partly in the western areas exposed to the continental trade wind. This contrast is aggravated by the fact that in the same direction, evaporation increases sharply. As a result, at the prejucean periphery of the tropics of Eurasia, the humidification coefficient reaches 2.0 - 3.0, whereas on most of the space of the tropical belt it does not exceed 0.05,
Landscape-geographical consequences of the continental-oceanic circulation of air masses are extremely diverse. In addition to heat and moisture from the ocean with air flows, various salts are coming; This process, named G.N. High pulverization, serves as the most important cause of salinization of many arid regions. It has long been noticed that as it removed from oceanic coasts into the mainstream, the natural change of plant communities, the animal population, soil types occurs. In 1921, V. L. Komarov called this pattern a meridional zonality; He believed that at each mainland, three meridional zones should be distinguished: one intramaterial and two peecohanic. In 1946, this idea was specified by Leningrad geographer A. I. Yaouncen. In Pain
181 the physico-geographical zoning of the Earth he divided all the continents to three long sectors- Western, oriental and central and first noted that each sector is characterized by a set of latitudinal zones. However, the predecessor A. I. Yownputnin should be considered the English geographer A.J. Herberson, which in 1905 divided the land on natural belts and in each of them allocated three rolling segments - Western, oriental and central.
With a subsequent, deeper study of the pattern, which has become accepted to call with long-term sectoral, or simply sectoit turned out that the three-step sector division of all sushi is too schematically and does not reflect all the complexity of this phenomenon. The sectoral structure of the mainland has a clear asymmetric character and unequal in different latitudinal belts. So, in tropical latitudes, as already noted, the two-headed structure is shown clearly, in which the continental sector dominates, and the Western reduced. In polar latitudes, sectoral physico-geographical differences appear weakly due to the domination of rather homogeneous air masses, low temperatures and excessive moistening. In a b-real belt, Eurasia, where land has the largest (almost 200 °) long distance, on the contrary, not only well expressed all three sectors, but also the need to establish additional transitional stages between them.
The first detailed scheme of the Sushi sector division, implemented on the maps of "Physico-Geographical Atlas of the World" (1964), developed E. N. Lukashov. In this scheme, six physical and geographic (landscaped) sectors. Use as criteria sector differentiation of quantitative indicators - moisture coefficients and continental ™, and as a complex indicator - the boundaries of the distribution of zonal types of landscapes made it possible to detail and clarify the E. N. Lukashova scheme.
Here we come to a significant question about the relationship between zonality and secto. But it is first necessary to pay attention to a certain duality in the use of terms. zoneand sector.In a broad sense, these terms are used as collective, substantially typological concepts. So, by saying the "desert zone" or "steppe zone" (in the singular), they often mean the entire set of geographically separated areas with the same type of zone landscapes, which are scattered in different hemispheres, on different continents and in various sectors of the latter. Thus, in such cases, the zone does not think as a single holistic territorial unit, or region, i.e. Cannot be considered as an object of zoning. But at the same time, the same
182 mines may relate to specific, holistic geographically withdrawn allocations that meet the report of the region, for example Zone of the desert of Central Asia, the zone of steppes of Western Siberia.In this case, they deal with objects (taxa) of the zoning. In the same way, we have the right to say, for example, about the "Western Coaching Sector" in the broadest sense of the word as a global phenomenon, uniting a number of specific territorial areas on various continents - in the Adhesive part of Western Europe and the Adhesive part of the Sugar, along the Pacific Slops of Rockies Mountains, etc. Each such land sushi is an independent region, but they are all analogues and are also referred to as sectors, but they understood in a narrower sense of the word.
The zone and sector in the broad sense of the word with a clearly typological shade should be interpreted as the name of the nominal one and accordingly write their names from the lowercase letters, while the same terms in the narrow (i.e. regional) sense and the composition of their own geographical name, - With uppercase. Options are possible, for example: Western European Adhesive Sector instead of the Adhesive Sector of Western Europe; Eurasian steppe zone instead of the Steppe zone of Eurasia (or the steppes zone of Eurasia).
There are complex relationships between zonality and sectors. Sector differentiation largely determines the specific manifestations of the zonality law. Long-term sectors (widely understood) are usually elongated embracement of latitudinal zones. When moving from one sector to another, each landscape zone is undergoing more or less significant transformation, and for some zones, the border of the sectors turns out to be completely irresistible barriers, so that their distribution is limited strictly with certain sectors. For example, the Mediterranean zone is timed to the Western coequal sector, and subtropical wedge-to-east coequal (Table 2 and Fig. B) 1. The reasons for such apparent anomalies should be sought in the zonological sectors
1 in fig. 6 (as in Fig. 5) All continents are collected together in strict accordance with the distribution of sushi in breadth, with a linear scale on all parallels and axial meridian, that is, is equal to the Sanson's projection. Thus, the actual ratio of all circuits on the squares is transmitted. A similar, widely known and entered in the textbooks scheme E. N. Lukashova and A. M. Ryabchikova was built without compliance with the scale and therefore distorts the proportions between the latitudinal and long-standing length of the conditional array of sushi and the area ratios between the individual circuits. The creature of the proposed model is more precisely expressed by the term generalized continentinstead of frequently used perfect continent.
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The distribution of solar energy and especially atmospheric moistening.
The main criteria for the diagnosis of landscape zones are the objective indicators of heat supply and humidification. Experimentally found that among the many possible indicators for our purpose the most acceptance
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rows of landscape zone analogs in heat supply. "I - polar; II - subogenous; III - boreal; IV - subtlety; V - preyubdropic; VI - subtropical; VII - tropical and subequatorial; VIII - Equatorial; rows of landscape zone analogues by moisturizing:A - extraaride; B - arid; In - semiarid; G - sevengumidal; D - humid; 1 - 28 - Landscape zones (explanations in Table. 2); T.- the sum of temperatures for the period with the average daily air temperatures above 10 ° C; TO- Moisturizing coefficient. Scale - logarithmic
it is that each such a number of zone analogs fit into a certain interval of the values \u200b\u200bof the accepted heat supply indicator. Thus, the zones of the subboronal series lie in the range of temperature sums of 2200-4000 "C, subtropical - 5000 - 8000" S. In the framework of the accepted scale, less clear thermal differences are observed between the zones of tropical, subeupvatorial and equatorial belts, but this is quite natural, since in this case the defining factor of zonal differentiation is not heat supply, but moisturizing 1.
If the ranks of the zones of analogs in heat supply as a whole coincide with the latitudinal belts, the rows of moisturies have a more complex nature, concluding two components - the zonal and sector, and in their territorial shift there is no unidirectional. Differences in atmospheric moistening
1 due to the specified circumstance, as well as due to the lack of reliable data in Table. 2 and in fig. 7 and 8 tropical and subequatorial belts are combined and related to them zones-analogs are not delimited.
187 Lovers as zonal factors in the transition from one latitudinal belt to another and sectoral, i.e., the lending advection of moisture. Therefore, the formation of zone analogs in moistening in some cases is mainly due to the zonality (in particular, the taiga and equatorial forest in the humid row), in other - sectoral (for example, subtropical moisture in the same row), and in the third - coinciding effect both laws. To the latter case, the zones of the subequatorial change of forest forests and Lesosavan can be attributed.
Latitude zonality - a regular change in physico-geographic processes, components and complexes of geosystems from the equator to poles. The latitudinal zonality is due to the spherical shape of the earth's surface, as a result of which there is a gradual decrease from the equator to the poles of the amount of heat coming to it.
High-rise explanancy - a regular change of natural conditions and landscapes in the mountains as absolute height increases. The high-altitude explanancy is due to a climate change with a height: drop with air temperature and an increase in precipitation and atmospheric moistening. Vertical explanation always starts with the horizontal zone in which the mountainous country is located. Above the belt is replaced in general, just like horizontal zones, to the field of polar snow. Sometimes apply a less accurate name "Vertical Explanation". It is not accurate because the belt is not vertical, but a horizontal stretch and replace each other in height (Figure 12).
Figure 12 - High-rise lowering in the mountains
Natural zones - These are natural and territorial complexes inside the geographical belts of land, corresponding to the types of vegetation. In the distribution of natural zones in the belt, the relief is played by the relief, its drawing and absolute heights are mountain barriers that brave the path of the airflow, contribute to the rapid change of natural zones to more continental.
Natural zones of equatorial and subequatorial latitudes. Zone wet Equatorial Forests (Gilas)located in the equatorial climate belt with high temperatures (+28 ° C), and a large amount of precipitation throughout the year (more than 3000 mm). Received the greatest distribution of the zone in South America, where the Amazon pool is occupied. In Africa, it is located in the Congo pool, in Asia - on the Malacca Peninsula and the Large and Small Sunda and New Guinea (Figure 13).
Figure 13 - Natural Zones of Earth
Evergreen forests are thick, difficult to grow, grow on red-yellow ferallotic soils. Forests are distinguished by species diversity: abundance of palm trees, lian and epiphytes; On sea coasts are spread by mangroves. Trees in such a forest hundreds of species, and they are located in several tiers. Many of them bloom and fruit all year round.
The animal world is also distinguished by a variety. Most inhabitants are adapted to life on trees: monkeys, sloths, etc. From land animals are characterized by tapir, hippos, jaguars, leopards. A lot of birds (parrots, hummingbirds), rich in the world of reptiles, amphibians and insects.
Savannan Zone and Head Fallslocated in the subequatorial belt of Africa, Australia, South America. Climate is characterized by high temperatures, alternation of wet and dry seasons. Soils are peculiar: red and red-brown or reddish-brown, in which iron compounds accumulate. Due to insufficient moisture, herbal cover is an endless sea of \u200b\u200bherbs with separately worthy of low trees and thickets of shrubs. Wood vegetation is inferior to herbs, mainly tall cereals reaching the 1.5-3-meter heights sometimes. Numerous types of cacti and agave are distributed in American savannas. The arid period was adapted to certain types of trees, stocking moisture or delaying evaporation. This is African baobabs, Australian eucalyptus, South American bottle tree and palm trees. Rich and diverse the animal world. The main feature of the animal world Savannan is the numerousness of birds, hoofs and the presence of major predators. Vegetation contributes to the spread of large herbivore and predatory mammals, birds, reptiles, insects.
Zone variable wet leaf fall forestsfrom the East, the North and the South framed the hyileu. Here are common both challenged evergreen hallenge species and species, partially dropping foliage in the summer; Formal latice and yellow soil are formed. The animal world is rich and diverse.
Natural zones of tropical and subtropical latitudes. In the tropical zone of the northern and southern hemispheres prevails tropical desert zone.The climate is tropical desert, hot and dry, because the soil is weak, often saline. Vegetation on such soils Scarce: rare rigid herbs, spiky shrubs, solicky, lichens. Animal world is richer vegetable, since reptiles (snakes, lizards) and insects are capable of being without water for a long time. From mammals - hoofs (Ceyran Antilopa, etc.), capable of overcome in search of water long distances. The sources of water are located oasis - "spots" of life among dead desert spaces. Fatherland palm trees, olendra grow here.
In the tropical belt is also presented zone of wet and variable-wet rainforest.It was formed in the eastern part of South America, in the northern and northeastern parts of Australia. The climate is wet with constantly high temperatures and plenty of precipitation that fall out in summer during monsoon rains. On red-yellow and red soils, variable-wet, evergreen forests rich in the species composition (palm trees, ficuses) are growing. They look like equatorial forests. The animal world is rich and diverse (monkeys, parrots).
Subtropical Tighted Evergreen Forests and Shrubscharacteristic for the western part of the continents, where Mediterranean climate: hot and dry summer, warm and rainy winter. Brown soils have high fertility and are used to cultivate valuable subtropical crops. The lack of moisture during the period of intensive solar radiation led to the appearance of fixtures in plants in the form of rigid leaves with a wax chain, reducing evaporation. Tighted evergreen forests are decorated with laurels, wild olives, cypresses, tees. In large areas, they cut down, and their place occupy fields of grain crops, gardens and vineyards.
Zone of wet subtropical forestslocated in the east of the continents, where the climate is subtropical monsoon. Sedips fall out in summer. Forests thick, evergreen, wide and mixed, grow on the reds and yellow meters. The animal world is diverse, bears, deer, roe deer.
Subtropical steppes, semi-desert and desertcompleted sectors in the inner areas of the mainland. In South America, the steppe is called Pamp. Subtropic dry with hot summer and relatively warm winter climate allows you to grow drought-resistant herbs and cereals (wormwood, nickname) on gray-brown steppe and brown desert soils. The animal world is distinguished by a species diversity. From mammals typical Susliki, tushkars, jeans, kulans, sacks and hyenas. Numerous lizards, snakes.
Natural zones of moderate latitude Include desert zones and semi-deserts, steppes, forest-steppes, forests.
Desert and semi-desertsmoderate latitudes occupy large areas in the inner regions of Eurasia and North America, minor territories in South America (Argentina), where the climate is sharply continental, dry, with cold winter and hot summer. Poor vegetation grows on gray-brown desert soils: steppe pickup, wormwood, barb camel; In decreases on saline soils - Solyanka. In the animal world, lizards, snakes, turtles, tushkans are dominated, saigas are prevalent.
Steppeoccupy large territories in Eurasia, South and North America. In North America they are called prairies. The climate of the steppes is continental, arid. Due to lack of moisture, there are no trees and a rich herbal cover is developed (Kickl, Ticachak and other cereals). In the steppes, the most fertile soils are formed - chernozem. Summer vegetation in the steppes is scarce, and a short spring blooms a lot of colors; Lilies, tulips, poppies. The animal world of steppes is represented mainly mice, gopters, hamsters, as well as foxes, ferrets. The nature of the steppes has changed in many ways under the influence of man.
North of the steppes there is a zone forest-steppes.This is a transition zone, forest areas in it are interspersed with significant spaces covered with herbal vegetation.
Zones of short and mixed forestspresented in Eurasia, North and South America. The climate when moving from the oceans inside the continents is replaced by the marine (monsoon) to the continental. Depending on the climate, vegetation changes. The zone of broad forest (beech, oak, maple, linden) goes into the zone of mixed forests (pine, spruce, oak, rhine, etc.). Soften breeds (pine, spruce, fir, larch) are used to the north and further into the mainstream. Among them are also small breeds (birch, aspen, alder).
Soils in the brown forest brown forests, in the mixed forest - dend-podzolic, in the taiga - podzolic and permanently taiga. Almost for all forest zones of the moderate belt is characterized by widespread swamp.
Very diverse animal world (deer, brown bears, lynx, boars, roasted, etc.).
Natural zones of subogenous and polar latitudes. Lesotundrait is a transition zone from forests to the tundra. The climate in these latitudes is cold. Soil tundrov-gley, podzolic and peat-marsh. The vegetation of the parel (low larch, spruce, birch) is gradually moving into the tundra. The animal world is represented by the inhabitants of the forest and tundra zones (polar owls, lemmings).
Tundrait is characterized by a bevel. Climate with long cold winter, raw and cold summer. This leads to a strong primer of the soil, is formed eternal Merzlot.Evaporation here is small, the organic matter does not have time to decompose and the result is formed by the swamps. On the poor, the tundra gross, lichens, low herbs, dwarf birchs, willow, etc., are growing on the poor by humus, low herbs, dwarf birches, willow and others. By the nature of the vegetation, the tundra is moss, lichen, shrub.Animal world is poor (reindeer, sandy, owls, beds).
Arctic Zone (Antarctic) Desertlocated in polar latitudes. Due to the very cold climate at low temperatures throughout the year, large sushi squares are covered with glaciers. The soil is almost not developed. On free from ice, areas are located rocky deserts with very poor and rare vegetation (mosses, lichen, algae). Polar birds are settled on the rocks, forming the "bird markets". In North America there is a major hoofed animal - sheby. Natural conditions in Antarctica are even more severe. Penguins, petrels, cormorants nest on the coast. Whales, seals, fish live in Antarctic waters.
Due to the spherical shape of the Earth and change the angle of falling the sun's rays onto the earth's surface. In addition, the latitudinal zonality depends on the distance to the Sun, and the mass of the Earth affects the ability to keep the atmosphere, which serves as a transformer and a redistributor of energy.
The tilt of the axis to the plane of the ecliptic is of great importance, the unevenness of the flow of solar heat depends on the seasons, and the daily rotation of the planet causes the deviation of the air masses. The result of the difference in the distribution of the radiant energy of the Sun is the zonal radiation balance of the earth's surface. The unevenness of heat intake affects the location of the air masses, moisture turnover and the circulation of the atmosphere.
Zonality is expressed not only in the average annual amount of heat and moisture, but also in intraday changes. Climatic zonality is reflected in the drain and hydrological mode, the formation of the weathelation of the weathering, of the fever. A great influence has on the organic world, specific relief forms. The homogeneous composition and the high air mobility smoothes the zonal differences with a height.
In each hemisphere, 7 circulation zones are isolated.
see also
Literature
- Milkov F. N., N. N. N. A. Physical geography of the USSR. Part 1. - M.: Higher School, 1986.
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The surface of our planet is heterogeneous and conditionally divided into several belts, which are also called latitudinal zones. They naturally replace each other from the equator to the poles. What is a latitudinal zonality? Why does it depend on and how does it manifest? We will talk about all this.
What is a latitudinal zonality?
In certain corners of our planet, natural complexes and components vary. They are unevenly distributed, and it may seem that chaotically. However, they have certain patterns, and the surface of the Earth is divided into the so-called zones.
What is a latitudinal zonality? This distribution of natural components and physico-geographical processes belts parallel to the equator line. It is manifested by differences in the average annual amount of heat and precipitation, changing seasons, vegetable and soil cover, as well as representatives of the animal world.
In each hemisphere, the zone replaced each other from the equator to the poles. On the ground where the mountains are present, this rule is changing. Here, natural conditions and landscapes are replaced from top to bottom, relative to absolute height.
And the latitudinal, and the altitude zonality is not always expressed in the same way. Sometimes they are more noticeable, sometimes less. Features of the vertical change of zones largely depends on the remoteness of the mountains from the ocean, the location of the slopes relative to the undergoing air flow. The most vividly high-rise explanancy is expressed in Andes and Himalayas. What is a latitudinal zonality is best visible in the plain regions.
Why does zonality depend on?
The main cause of all climatic and natural features of our planet is the sun and the position of the Earth regarding him. Due to the fact that the planet has a spherical shape, solar heat is unevenly distributed over it, heating some sections are larger, others are less. This, in turn, contributes to the unequal warming of air, which is why winds arise, which also participate in climate formation.
The natural features of individual land plots also affect the development of the river system and its regime, the distance from the ocean, the level of salinity of its water, sea currents, the nature of the relief and other factors.
Manifestation on the mainland
On land, the latitudinal zonality is noticeable more distinctly than in the ocean. It manifests itself in the form of natural zones and climatic belts. In the northern and southern hemispheres, such belts are distinguished: Equatorial, subequatorial, tropical, subtropical, moderate, subarctic, arctic. Each of them corresponds to its natural zones (deserts, semi-deserts, arctic deserts, tundra, taiga, evergreen forest, etc.), which are much more.
What continents are the latitudinal zonality pronounced? It is best observed in Africa. It is quite well traced on the plains of North America and Eurasia (Russian plain). In Africa, latitudinal zonality is clearly noticeable due to a small amount of high mountains. They do not create a natural barrier for air masses, so climatic belts replace each other without violating patterns.
The equator line crosses the African Mainland in the middle, so its natural zones are distributed almost symmetrically. Thus, wet equatorial forests are transferred to the savanna and gentlemen of the subequatorial belt. This is followed by tropical deserts and semi-deserts, which are replaced by subtropical forests and shrubs.
Interesting zonality is manifested in North America. In the north, it is standardly distributed in latitude and expressed by the Tundra of the Arctic and Taiga of Subarctic belts. But below the great lakes zones are distributed parallel to meridians. High Cordillera in the West block the path of winds from the Pacific Ocean. Therefore, natural conditions are replaced from west to east.
Zonalness in the ocean
The change of natural zones and belts exists in the waters of the world's ocean. It is visible at a depth of 2000 meters, but very clearly traced at a depth of 100-150 meters. It manifests itself in various components of the organic world, the salinity of water, as well as its chemical composition, in the temperature difference.
The belt of the World Ocean is almost the same as on land. Only instead of the arctic and subarctic subepolar and polar, as the ocean comes right to the north pole. In the lower layers of the ocean, the boundaries between the belts are stable, and in the upper they can shift depending on the season.
The latitudinal zonality is a natural change in physico-geographical processes, components and complexes of geosystems from the equator to poles. The primary cause of zonality is an uneven distribution of solar energy by latitude due to the spherical shape of the Earth and changing the angle of falling the sunlight on the ground surface. In addition, the latitudinal zonality depends on the distance to the Sun, and the mass of the Earth affects the ability to keep the atmosphere, which serves as a transformer and a redistributor of energy. Zonalness is expressed not only in the average annual amount of heat and moisture, but also in intra-annual changes. Climatic zonality is reflected in the drain and hydrological mode, the formation of the weathelation of the weathering, of the fever. A great influence is on the organic world, specific form of relief. The homogeneous composition and the high air mobility smoothes the zonal differences with a height.
High-rise lower, high-rise zonality is a natural change of natural conditions and landscapes in the mountains as an absolute height increase (height above sea level).
High-rise belt, high-rise landscape area - a unit of highly zonal dismemberment of landscapes in the mountains. The high-altitude belt forms a band, relatively homogeneous in natural conditions, often intermittent [
The high-rise explanancy is due to a climate change with a height: 1 km of the lifting the air temperature decreases by an average of 6 ° C, the air pressure decreases, its dusting increases, the intensity of solar radiation increases, cloudy and the amount of precipitation increases to a height of 2-3 km. As the height increases, there is a change of landscape belts, to some degree similar latitudinal zonality. The value of solar radiation increases with the radiation balance of the surface. As a result, the air temperature decreases as height grows. In addition, there is a decrease in the amount of precipitation due to the barrier effect.
Geographical zones (Greek Zone - belt) - wide strips on the earth's surface, limited by similar features of hydroclimatic (energy-making) and biogenic (vital) natural resources.
Zones are part of geographic belts, but the land of the terrestrial ball is converted only that is, in which excessive humidity and soil are preserved throughout the belt. These are the landscape zones of the TundR, Tundrols and Taiga. All other zones within one geographical latitude are replaced by weakening oceanic influence, that is, when changing the ratio of heat and moisture is the main landscape-forming factor. For example, in a 40-50 ° lane of northern latitude and in North America and in Eurasia, the zone of large forests go into the forests mixed, then into conifers, in the depths of the continents are replaced by forest-steppes, steppes, semi-deserts and even deserts. Large zones or sectors arise.