Position of a person in the system of the animal world. Evidence of human origin from animals

Still in antique time man confessed "Relative" of animals. K. Linney in his "System of Nature" placed it along with the highest and lower monkeys in one detachment of primates. C. Darwin on numerous examples in a special work "The origin of a person and sex selection" showed the close relationship of a person with the highest anthropoid monkeys.

Reasonable man (Homo Sapiens) belongs to the type of chord, vertebrate, mammalian class, placental subclass, a detachment of primates, a family of hominids.

FROM chordovy Human Rodnit: The presence of chords in the early embryonic stages, a nervous tube lying on the chord, gill slots in the walls of the throat, hearts on the abdominal side under the digestive fact.

Personality person k vertebal subtype Determined by the replacement of the chord spine, developed skull and jaw apparatus, two vapors of the limbs, a brain, consisting of five departments.

Hair availability on the surface of the body, five spinal departments, sebaceous, sweat and Milky glands, The diaphragms, four-dimensional hearts, highly developed cerebral bark and warm-bloodedness indicate a person belonging to the class of mammals.

The development of the fetus in the body of the mother and the power of it through the placenta - features characteristic of placement subclass.

The presence of anterior limbs is grabbing type (the first finger is opposed to the rest), well-developed clavicle, nail On the fingers, one pair of the nipples of the Milky glands, replacement in ontogenesis of dairy teeth for permanent, birth, as a rule, one young allow you to attribute a person to primates.

More private signs, such as a similar structure of the brain and facial sections of the skull, well-developed frontal brain lobes, a large number of convolutions on the hemispheres of the brain, the presence of appendix, the disappearance of the tail of the spine, the development of a mimic muscles, four main blood groups, similar reserves factors And other signs bring together a person with man-like monkeys. Anthropoids are also sick with many infectious diseases inherent to person (tuberculosis, abdominal typhoid, children's paralysis, dysentery, AIDS, etc.). The chimpanzee occurs a Dauna disease, the emergence of which, as in humans, is associated with the presence in the karyotype of the animal of the third chromosome of 21st pairs. The proximity of the person to anthropidam is traced in other signs.

At the same time, between man and animals, including man-like monkeys, there are indigenous differences. Only a person has a true strain. Due to the vertical position of the skeleton of a person has four sharp bends of the spine, supporting vaulted foot with a highly developed thumb, a flat thoracic.

Flexible brush Hands - labor body - can perform a wide variety of high-precision movements. The brain department of the skull is significantly dominated by the facial. The crust area of \u200b\u200blarge hemispheres and brain volume is much higher than that of man-like monkeys. A person is inherent in consciousness and figurative thinking, with which such activities as designed, painting, literature, science is related. Finally, only people can communicate with each other with a speech. These features of the structure, vital activity and behavior Man-present the evolution of his animal ancestors.

Anthropogenesis. Historically, the formation of a modern man happened under influence Factors, typical and for other species categories of Earth inhabitants. But, studying our evolution, it is necessary to take into account that the emergence of a person - the event is unique, in this case there is a transition to a new type of living matter of living matter - social or public. It was a huge jump, separated by a person from the animal world. What are the main factors of anthropogenesis?

Fruits evolution

The evolutionary transformation of our ancestors due to the influence of natural selection, the evolutionary transformation of our ancestors has been biologically determined by social laws. Of course, the characterizing modern person features appeared not immediately - it took several millions of years. In particular, the reinforcement of our hands to work the strain arose at the primary stage of the development of Australopithek. Also within a few million years, the mass of the brain increased. But at the last stages of development of our brain, there was not an increase in its masses, but a certain constructive reorganization of this body, as a result of which the social aspect of the human psyche was developed. Out of doubt, the main factor of anthropogenesis is the emergence of work, the ability to produce labor tools. This event was a high-quality jump, a turning point from phylogenesis (biological history) to social history.

Anthropogenesis Biological factors

The concept of "anthropogenesis" (anthroposocionesis) denote the general course of the processes of the evolutionary-historical development of the physical image of a person, the initial formation of its speech, work activity and society. Anthropogenesis problems studies science anthropology. Without the influence of biological, as well as social factors, anthropogenesis would be impossible. Biological factors (the driving force of evolution) are common for both human and the rest of the wildlife. They also receive natural selection and hereditary variability. The importance of biological factors for human evolution revealed C. Darwin. These factors at the early stage of the evolution of man played a particularly important role. Arising inheritance changes determined in particular human growth, the color of his eyes and hair, resistance to the impacts of messengers. At an early stage of evolution, a person was in great dependence on natural factors. Survive and left offspring in such circumstances. The one who possessed useful conditions for these conditions inherited characteristics.

Social factors Anthropogenesis

Under these factors imply a social way of life, work, speech and developed consciousness. On their own, only a person can make an instrument of labor. Certain animals only use some items in order to mining food (to get the fruit from a monkey branch takes stick). Thanks to the work on the ancestors of man, the so-called anthropomorphosis occurred - fixing physiological and morphological changes. The most important factor in the anthropomorphosis in human evolution was strain. From generation to generation, natural selection maintained individuals with promotion of hereditary characteristics. Over time, an S-shaped vertical position has been formed spine, massive bones of legs, wide breasts and pelvis, vaulted foot have developed.

The main factor of anthropogenesis

Stirry released hands. Initially, the hand performed only the simplest movements, but in the process of classes, she was improved and acquired the ability to fulfill complex actions. In this sense, it can be concluded that the hand is not only an organ of labor, but also its product. Developing hands, a person got the opportunity to produce the simplest tools of labor, in the struggle for existence it became an important goat.

Joint labor contributed to the rapprochement of the members of the genus, there was a need to exchange sound signals. So communication caused the need to develop a second plan signal system - communication through words. The first means of communication was the exchange of gestures and individual primitive sounds. Further mutations and natural selection transformed the larynx and the oral apparatus, which formed speech. The ability to speak and the ability to work developed thinking. Thus, for a long time, the evolution of man occurred for a long time in the interaction of social and biological factors. Physiological and morphological features are able to be inherited, but the ability to work, thinking and speech develop exclusively in the process of education and education.

Races and their origin

1. What human races are you known? 2. What factors cause an evolutionary process? 3. What affects the formation of a gene pool of the population?

Human races - These are historically established groups (groups of populations) of people inside the type of Homo Sapiens Sapiens. Races differ from each other in secondary physical characteristics - skin color, body proportions, eye cut, hair structure, etc.

There are various classifications of human races. In practical terms, the classification is popular for which three large races : Core core (Eurasian), Mongoloid (Asia-American) and Australo-Negroid (Equatorial). Within these races there are about 30 small races. Between the three main groups of races there are transition races (Fig. 116).

Caucasoid Race

For the people of this race (Fig. 117) are characterized by light skin, straight or wavy light-blond or dark blond hair, gray, gray-green, greenery and blue wide open eyes, moderately developed chin, non-trapped nose, lackish lips , well-developed hair cover on the face of men. Now the European appeals live on all the continents, but they have been formed in Europe and anterior Asia.

Mongoloid Race

Mongoloids (see Fig. 117) have yellow or yellow-brown skin. They are characterized by dark hard straight hair, a wide flattened cheese face, narrow and slightly diagonal brown eyes with the fold of the upper eyelid in the inner corner of the eye (Epicatus), flat and quite wide nose, rare vegetation on face and body. This race prevails in Asia, but as a result of the migration, its representatives settled around the globe.

Australian-Negroid Race

Neurodes (see Fig. 117) dark-skinned, for them are characterized curly dark hair, wide and flat nose, brown or black eyes, rare vegetation on face and body. Classic Negories live in Equatorial Africa, but similar type of people occurs throughout the equatorial belt.

Australoids (Australian's indigenous residents) are almost as dark-skinned, like neurodes, but they are characterized by dark wavy hair, a large head and a massive face with a very wide and flat nose, protruding chin, a significant hair cover on face and body. Often, Australoids are distinguished into a separate race.

To describe the race, features are highlighted, the most characteristic of the majority of individuals included in it. But since within each race there are huge variations of hereditary characteristics, it is practically impossible to find individuals with all the signs inherent in the race.

Hypotheses of Raskenza.

The process of the occurrence and formation of human races is called sampling. There are various hypotheses explaining the origin of the races. Some scientists (polycentricists) believe that races arose independently of each other from different ancestors and in different places.

Other (monocentricists) recognize the generality of origin, socio-mental development, as well as the same level of physical and mental development of all races arising from one ancestor. The hypothesis of monocentrism is more reasonable and evidence.

Differences between races relate to secondary signs, since the main signs were acquired by a man long before the discrepancy between the races; - there is no genetic isolation between races, since marriages between representatives of different races give a prolific offspring; - currently observed changes that are manifested in a decrease in total massiveness skeleton and accelerating the development of the whole organism, characteristic of representatives of all races.

In favor of the hypothesis of monocentrism, the data of molecular biology also indicate. The results obtained in the study of DNA of representatives of various human races make it possible to assert that the first division of a single African branch on the Negroid and European-Mongoloid branch occurred about 40-100 thousand years ago. The second was the division of the European one-mongoloid branch on Western - European and Eastern - Mongoloids (Fig. 118).

Factors of omegenesis.

Factors of omeger are natural selection, mutations, insulation, mixing populations, etc. The greatest value, especially in the early stages of the formation of races, played natural selection. He contributed to the preservation and distribution in the populations of adaptive signs, which raised the viability of individuals under certain conditions.

For example, such a racial feature as skin color is adaptive to habitat. The effect of natural selection in this case is due to the connection between the solar illumination and the synthesis of anti-deficule vitamin A D, which is necessary to maintain in the body of calcium balance. An excess of this vitamin contributes to the accumulation of calcium in kostya By making them more fragile, the lack leads to Rickets.

The more melanin in the skin, the less solar radiation penetrates the body. Light skin contributes to a deeper passage of sunlight in human tissue, stimulating the synthesis of vitamin B under conditions of lack of solar radiation.

Another example of a protruding nose in the European enlisters lengthens the nasopharynx path, which contributes to the heating of cold air and protects the larynx and lungs from the supercooling. On the contrary, a very wide and flat nose in blacks contributes to greater heat transfer.

Criticism of racism. Considering the problem of sampling, it is necessary to dwell on racism - anti-scientific ideology about the inequality of human races.

Racism originated in a slave-owned society, but the main racist theories were formulated in the XIX century. They justified the advantages of one races over other, whites over black, were allocated "higher" and "lower" races.

In fascist Germany, racism was erected into the rank of state policy and served as an excuse for the destruction of "defective" peoples in the occupied territories.

In the US, until the middle of the XX century. Rasists promoted superiority white over black and inadmissibility of interracial marriages.

Interestingly, if in the XIX century. And in the first half of the XX century. Racists argued the superiority of the White race, then in the second half of the XX century. Ideologists appeared, promoting the superiority of a black or yellow race. Thus, racism is in no way connected with science and is intended to justify purely political and ideological dogmas.

Anyone, regardless of racial, is a "product" of its own genetic heredity and social medium. Currently, socio-economic relations, developing in modern human society, can affect the future of races. It is assumed that as a result of the mobility of human and interracial marriage populations in the future, a single human race can be formed. At the same time, as a result of interracial marriages, new populations with their own specific combinations of genes can be formed. Thus, for example, at present, the new racial group is based on the Hawaiian Islands on the basis of the mohethisation of European views, Mongoloids and Polynesians.

So, racial differences are the result of the adaptation of people to certain conditions of existence, as well as the historical and socio-economic development of human society.

Human races. Correne, Mongoloid, Australian-Negroid race. Rasken. Racism.

1. What are human race? 2. What factors influenced the clearing? 3. How can one explain the formation of physical signs characterizing various races? 4. What is the difference in the action of natural selection during the speciation and sampling? 5. Why can it be argued that from a biological point of view, all races are equal? 6. What evidence testify in favor of monocentrism hypothesis? 7. Why are racial theories can not be considered scientific? Discuss the problems of interracial relations and interracial marriages in modern society.

Brief content chapter

Evolution of man , or anthropogenesis, is the historical process of the evolutionary formation of man. It is qualitatively different from the evolution of other types of living organisms, since it is the result of the interaction of biological and social factors.

At the heart of modern scientific ideas about the origin of a person lies the concept, in accordance with which a person came out of the world of animals.

The development of man and man-like monkeys is not consistent steps, but parallel branches of evolution, the discrepancy between which from an evolutionary point of view is very deep.

Four stages are isolated anthropogenesis :

Human predecessors - Australophec; - the most ancient people - progressive Australopita, archantropips (peitics, synanthops, Heidelbergian man, etc.); - Ancient people - Paleoanthropes (Neanderthals); - Fossil people of modern anatomical type - Neoantropips (Cryanonians).

The historical development of a person was influenced by the same factors of biological evolution as the formation of other types of living organisms. However, it is characterized by a person unique for wildlife, as an increasing impact on the anthropogenesis of social factors (labor activity, a public lifestyle, speech and thinking).

For modern man, social and labor relations have become leading and determining.

As a result of social development, a reasonable person acquired unconditional advantages among all living beings. But this does not mean that the occurrence of the social sphere has canceled the effect of biological factors. Social sphere only changed their manifestation. Homo Sapiens As a form is an integral part of the biosphere and the product of its evolution.

Human races - These are historically established groups (groups of populations) of people characterized by the similarity of morphological and physiological traits. Racial differences are the result of the adaptation of people to certain conditions of existence, as well as the historical and socio-economic development of human society.

Three large races are distinguished: European (Eurasian), Mongoloid (Asia-American) and Australian-Negotic (Equatorial).

How did it work out that James Watson, an outstanding scientist, the Nobel laureate, the rector of the famous research center, a dear person, is accused of racism? What did he say to this and why such noise rose around his statements? Are they so dangerous?

Genius...

79-year-old Dr. James Watson, the rector of the research laboratory of the Cold Spring Harbor (previously her president, earlier, is known, first of all, as one of the discoverers of the DNA molecule structure and the Nobel Prize laureate in physiology and medicine for 1962.

It is also known for his scandalous opinions and statements, as well as a turbid history around the discovery of DNA (Watson used DNA samples without the consent of their owner, for which it was subsequently reproached in non -ethic behavior).

In 1997, Watson allegedly stated that the woman should be eligible for an abortion if the tests show that her child will be inclined to homosexuality (the scientist himself denies that he made categorical statements, and explains that he considered the issue from a theoretical point of view). A few years later, he noted that "Conducting an interview with a fat man, you feel embarrassed: you know that you will not take it to work."

A few days ago, Watson, going to read a lecture in the UK, caused the stormy displeasure of human rights organizations. The impetus to the scandal served, apparently, the article of Watson Charlotte Hunt-Grubbe (Charlotte Hunt-Grubbe) in The Sunday Times newspaper on October 14, in which the statements of the Nobel laureate about intelligence blacks were quoted.

So, Watson believes that social policy, conducted by civilized countries in relation to Africa, is doomed to failure, since it is based on the fact that blacks on congenital intellectual abilities are no different from whites, while "all experiments say it is not So". According to the scientist, the desire of people think that they are all equal, naturally, however, "people who have ever dealt with black workers know that it is not true." Watson expects a genetic confirmation in the next 15 years.

Watson admits that "there are many talented color," but believes that it is not necessary to reward them and raise them only for the fact that they are colored. It is difficult to argue with this, but the sayings about the "low" intelligence of the blacks caused a great resonance, many demand to attract a judicial scientist in court. The British Equality Commission and Human Rights Carefully checks the statements of the laureate. Watson himself did not comment on the situation yet.

... and evil?

James Watson, most likely, believes in what he says, and wants "stupid" black good. Moreover, its statements can not be called obviously falsely, people are really different. Studies show, for example, that in the treatment of certain diseases to the blacks and a different approach is required to white. Maybe for politics in relation to states, this is also true? Can a whole race be more stupid than another race?

Theoretically can. Practically, the issue itself is in doubt. What is "Race"? There is no single definition, some scientists generally believe that the concept of "race" has no scientific value. Attempts to find the basis for the combination of people into races rest in the vagueness of the criteria. Physical signs even within one "race" can vary greatly, the genetic standard has not yet been detected. In the world are full of people who have someone from the ancestors - Negro, someone - white, someone - Indian, where to attribute them?

But suppose that the race still manages to allocate. How to measure the average intelligence of races, not considering social, geographical and other prerequisites? And most importantly can it be done? On the one hand, science should be free from all political correctness, the task of a scientist is a search for scientific truth. On the other hand, if suddenly the scientific truth is that negros are really stupid than white, then is it better to remain wanted? Historic experience shows what is better.

Those who took 300 years ago with slaves-negotias, as with animals, or, moreover, with things, it was unlikely that they were so hopeless to be bad people. They just sincerely believed (however, to believe it was easy and convenient) that the world was so arranged: Negros - labor, lower estate, if at all people. If then it was known about the existence of "genetic predetermination," no one would doubt that the Negroes "genetically predetermined" the lowest step of the social staircase. And those who built gas chambers for the Jews 60 years ago, also believed that they were doing a good thing. And it was confirmed, in particular, relevant scientific research.

Of course, Dr. Watson will not come to the head of blackhead into slavery or deprive them right. Scary not that. It is scary that there are those who may come to mind. It is impossible that science give them such terrible social weapons as the genetic proof of the superiority of one of the races confirmed by the authority of the Nobel laureate.

Raise panic because of the personal opinion of one scientist - of course, some reinsurance. But those who accuse Watson in Rasism and try to attract him to the court, believe that it is better to rebuild, what to return to the institution of slavery than to drive people of disadvantageous nationalities into concentration camps than to calculate the Georgian living in Moscow, searching in schools of children with Georgian surnames .

That is why such noise rose around Watson's statements. That is why in some states adopted laws prohibiting research in this direction. That is why in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination, approved by the UN General Assembly in 1965, there are such lines: "States Parties (...) are convinced that every theory of superiority based on racial difference in scientific relations False, in moral - is represented and in social - unfair and dangerous, and that there can be no excuse for racial discrimination, anywhere, nor in theory, nor in practice.

Alexander Berdichevsky

"I did not tolerate defeats. I simply found 10,000 ways that do not work, "the American inventor Thomas Edison said optimistically.

Scientists in search of objective truth have repeated false hypotheses or made incorrect conclusions from their observations. Some of them turned out to be so far from the truth, which caused humanity to serious damage. Let's recall several such theories together.

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1. Francology

Position: Communication of the psyche of a person with the structure of the surface of its skull

The main theoretical of Franology Austrian Franz Joseph Gall believed that the mental properties, thoughts and emotions of the person were laid in both hemispheres of the brain and with a strong manifestation of any trait this is reflected on the shape of a skull. Gall drew the "phrenological cards": the zone of the temples, for example, is responsible for the addiction to the guilt and food, the occipital part is for friendship and sociability, and the zone of "love for life" is located for some reason.

Hallet, each convexity on the skull - a sign of high development of the mental line, and the vpina is the insufficient manifestation. All this reminds Hirosophy - the doctrine of communication of the shape of the hand and lines on the palms with the character, the worldview and the fate of man.

Frenology was incredibly popular at the beginning of the XIX century: many slave owners from the south of the United States were fond of this theory, because their material for experiments was always at hand. In the film "Django liberated", the disgusting hero, Leonardo Di Caprio also studies phrenology. This science is closely related to racial theory and other pseudo-native substantiations for discrimination. In the same "Django" slave owner Calvin Candy with the help of a skull explains why all the blacks from nature are predisposed to be slaves.

The massive passion of phrenology sharply went on decline with the development of neurophysiology in 1840: it was proved that the mental properties of the individual would not depend on the relief of the brain surface, nor from the shape of the skull.

2. Focal sepsis (theory of focal infection)

The main position: mental and physical diseases appear due to toxins sucking in blood from the focus of inflammation in the body. To cure the disease, you need to find and neutralize the guilty organ.

The theory of focal sepsis has gained popularity in the middle of the XIX century and lasted until World War II. Because of it, a huge number of people made unnecessary operations and carried injury. Doctors believed that the focus of the accumulation of bacteria inside the body could be the cause of mental retardation, arthritis and cancer. As a result, the removal of teeth, appendix, parts of the intestine and other potentially dangerous bodies has become a common practice.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the English doctor William Hunter wrote an article about the fact that all the diseases are caused by an insufficient oral hygiene, and the treatment of a patient's tooth is meaningless, since the focus of infection does not eliminate. As a result, in Europe and America, with suspected caries, patients began to remove teeth, glands and adenoids.

In 1940, it was proved that the theory of focal infection is untenable. Operations were harvested by patients, toxins, allegedly released by infected teeth, could not influence the psyche, and in most cases diet and other gentle treatments could help in patients.

Despite the refutation of the theory, several decades of children were without the need to remove glands and adenoids in order to prevent angina (but then they bought ice cream).

3. Pyramid for Maslow Needs

The theory of motivation based on the pyramid of needs has little common with the research of Abraham Maslow, the founder of humanistic psychology.

I myself believed that the standardized hierarchy of needs could not exist, as it depends on the individual characteristics of the person. In addition, its studies concerned a certain type of people and varied depending on the age group.

On the oil, groups of needs are becoming relevant in the process of growing up. For example, young children need to eat on time and sleep during the day, adolescents are more important to conquer respect among peers, and people in adulthood are to experience satisfaction from their family and in society. The attention of the scientist was initially focused on self-actualization - the top of the pyramid, that is, a man's desire for self-expression and personal development. The objects of his research were active and successful creative people - such as Albert Einstein or Abraham Lincoln.

The pyramid is artificially constructed simplification that does not provide ideas about the needs of most people. The use of the Pyramid of the Oil as a scientific base in management, marketing and social design in most cases does not give the necessary results, but provides space for speculation. No wonder: the theory of needs hierarchy, on the basis of which the pyramid was constructed, was not confirmed by empirical studies.

4. Theory of Effective Communication Dale Carnegie

Basic position: Refusal from your own "I"

The famous American specialist in the field of communication described his theories of effective communication in books with speaking names, for example, "How to acquire friends and influence people", "How to stop worrying and start living." His work should have helped people become happy, easy to find a common language and avoid conflicts.

The ideas of Carnegie about success were incredibly influential. Until now, many believe that successful (and therefore happy) a person should be able to speak in public, actively make new acquaintances, charming interlocutors and devote themselves to work. But the concept of success, which was so famously operated on carnegie, cannot be standardized, as well as personal effectiveness criteria (it is personal).

Modern psychologists point to many mistakes made by Carnegie in his theory about the happiness "Self-Maid". In their works, Carnegi systematically calls for the abandonment of their own "I" to make communication more efficiently. This is his main mistake.

Perceiving a system of values \u200b\u200bof another person to like him, a person can really manipulate the interlocutor and use it for his own purposes. But the refusal of his own opinion and the opportunity to express him badly affects the psyche. As a result, the accumulated stress, a sense of depression and non-compliance with the criteria of success is poured into psychosomatic disorders. Simply put, attempts to become successful on Carnegie help to achieve artificial purposes, but do not make a person happier.

Chief Council of Carnegie "Smile!" Well suits extroverts that are constantly smiling, but for introverts it is unnatural and painful.

Carnegie imposed the readers the same ideas about what a person should strive for, and his ideas in the end became the cause of complexes, psychological problems and feelings of guilt.

5. Racious theory

Basic position: The separation of humanity into several unequal races

Unified racial theory does not exist: in different works, 4 to 7 major races and several dozen small anthropological types are distinguished. Rasology is not in vain appeared in the era of slavery. The system at which some people dominate all the spheres of public life, and others obey them facelessly, needed a scientific substantiation.

In the middle of the XIX century, the Frenchman Joseph Gobino declared the Aryans of the Higher Race, intended for domination over the rest. Subsequently, racial theory served as a scientific basis for the Nazi policy of "Racha Hygiene", aimed at discrimination and the destruction of "defective" people, first of all, Jews and Gypsies. The ideas made by Gobino were developed in the pseudo-native racial theory of Günther, which attributed to each anthropological type of certain mental abilities and character traits. It was she who became the basis of Nazi racial policies, the catastrophic consequences of which there is no need to list.

Modern science denies the division of people to races: Most Western scientists believe that the external differences found within our species are not essential for separation into additional categories and are not related to mental abilities. After World War II, all racial theories were recognized as insolvent.

6. Evgenika

Primary position: human selection in order to eliminate valuable qualities

The idea of \u200b\u200bbreeding in relation to a person put forward Francis Galton, the cousin Charles Darwin. The goal of Eugene, which became popular in the first decades of the XX century, was to improve the gene pool.

Supporters of "Positive Evgenika" argue that it can promote reproduction of people with qualities, valuable for society. But which qualities are valuable? Many people with high intelligence and creative potential suffer congenital somatic defects, which means that in the process of breeding may be overboard. In addition, the mechanisms of inheritance of such signs as a predisposition to drunkenness or, on the contrary, good health and high IQ, the same poorly studied: many of these signs are manifested only when the environment is influenced in which a person is raised and lives.

Evgenika as science was discredited in the 1930s, when its provisions served as a justification for the racial policy of Nazi Germany. In the third Reich, "Negative Evgenika" developed more actively: first of all, the Nazis wanted to stop the reproduction of people with hereditary defects and those who considered Rovo's defective. Evgenic programs for the compulsory sterilization of people who allowed serious crimes or "mentally defective," existed in Sweden, Finland, USA, Denmark, Estonia, Norway and Switzerland, they acted in some countries until the 1970s.

At the end of the 20th century, when experiments were successfully carried out on cloning higher mammals, and geneticists had the opportunity to make changes to DNA, the question of the ethicality of improving the human gene pool again became relevant.

Now the fight against hereditary diseases is conducted within the framework of genetics.

Scientists in search of objective truth have repeated false hypotheses or made incorrect conclusions from their observations. Some of them were so far from the truth, which caused serious damage to humanity. Look AT ME remembered several such theories.

Phrenology

Basic position: communication of the psyche of a person with the structure of the surface of his skull

The main theorist of Franology Austrian Franz Josef Gall considered
that the mental properties, thoughts and emotions of a person are laid in both hemispheres of the brain, and with a strong manifestation of any trait it is reflected on the shape of a skull. Gall drew the "phrenological cards": the zone of the temples, for example, is responsible for the addiction to the guilt and food, the occipital part is for friendship and sociability, and the zone of "love for life" is located for some reason.

Hallet, each convexity on the skull - a sign of high development of the mental line, and the vpadina is the insufficient manifestation. All this reminds Hirosophy - the doctrine of communication of the shape of the hand and lines on his palms with the character, the worldview and the fate of man.

Frenology was incredibly popular at the beginning of the XIX century: many slave owners from the south of the United States were fond of this theory, because their material for experiments was always at hand. In the film "Dzhango liberated", the disgusting hero, Leonardo di Caprio also studies phrenology. This science is closely related to racial theory and other pseudo-native substantiations for discrimination. In the same "Django" slave owner Calvin Candy with the help of a skull explains why all the blacks from nature are predisposed to be slaves.

The massive passion of phrenology sharply went on decline with the development of neurophysiology in 1840: it was proved that the mental properties of the individual would not depend on the relief of the brain surface, nor from the shape of the skull.

Focal sepsis (theory of focal infection)

Basic position: Mental
and physical diseases appear due to toxins sucking in blood from the focus of inflammation in the body. To cure the disease, you need to find and neutralize the guilty organ.

The theory of focal sepsis has gained popularity in the middle of the XIX century and lasted until World War II. Because of her, a huge number of people made unnecessary operations and carried injury. Doctors believed that the focus of the accumulation of bacteria inside the body could be the cause of mental retardation, arthritis and cancer. As a result, the removal of teeth, appendix, parts of the intestine and other potentially dangerous organs has become common practice.

At the beginning of the 20th century, the English doctor William Hunter wrote an article about the fact that all the diseases are caused by an insufficient oral hygiene, and the treatment of a patient's tooth is meaningless, since the focus of infection does not eliminate. As a result, in Europe and America, with suspected caries, patients began to remove teeth, glands and adenoids.

In 1940, it was proved that the theory of focal infection is untenable. Operations were harvested by patients, toxins, allegedly released by infected teeth, could not influence the psyche, and in most cases diet and other gentle treatments could help patients.

Despite the denial of the theory, several decades of children were removed without the need to remove glands and adenoids in order to prevent angina (But then they bought ice cream).

Pyramid of Maslow Needs

The theory of motivation based on the pyramid of needs has little common with the research of Abraham Maslow, the founder of humanistic psychology.

I myself believed that the standardized hierarchy of needs could not exist, as it depends on the individual characteristics of the person. In addition, its research concerned a certain type of people and varied depending on the age group.

On the oil, groups of needs are becoming relevant in the process of growing up. For example, young children need to eat on time and sleep during the day, teenagers are more important to conquer respect among peers, and people in adulthood are to experience satisfaction from their family and in society. The attention of the scientist was originally focused on self-actualization - the top of the pyramid, that is, the pursuit of a person for self-expression and personal development. The objects of his research were active and successful creative people - such as Albert Einstein or Abraham Lincoln.

The pyramid is artificially constructed simplification that does not provide ideas about the needs of most people. Using the Pyramid of the Oil as a scientific base in management, marketing and social design in most cases does not give the necessary results, but provides space for speculation. No wonder: the theory of needs hierarchy, on the basis of which the pyramid was constructed, was not confirmed by empirical studies.

Theory of Effective Communication Dale Carnegie

Basic position: refusal of your own "I"

A well-known American specialist in the field of communication described its effective communication theories In books with speaking names, for example, "how to acquire friends and influence people", "how to stop worrying and start living." His work should have helped people become happy, easy to find a common language and avoid conflicts.

The ideas of Carnegie about success were incredibly influential. Still many believe that successful (and therefore happy) A person should be able to perform in the public, actively make new acquaintances, charming the interlocutors and devote himself to work. But the concept of success, which was so famously operated on carnegi, can not be standardized, as well as personal effectiveness criteria (It is also personal).

Modern psychologists indicate many mistakes made by Carnegie in his theory about the happiness "Self-Maid". In their works, Carnegi systematically calls for the abandonment of their own "I" to make communication more efficiently. This is his main mistake.

Perceiving a system of values \u200b\u200bof another person to like him, a person can really manipulate the interlocutor and use it for his own purposes. But the refusal of his own opinion and the opportunity to express him badly affects the psyche. As a result, the accumulated stress, a sense of depression and non-compliance with the criteria of success is poured into psychosomatic disorders. Simply put, attempts to become successful on Carnegie help to achieve artificial purposes, but do not make a person happier.

Chief Council of Carnegie "Smile!" Well suits extroverts that are constantly smiling, but for introverts it is unnatural and painful.

Carnegie imposed the readers the same ideas about what a person should strive for, and his ideas in the end became the cause of complexes, psychological problems and feelings of guilt.

Roll theory

Basic position: the separation of humanity into several unequal races

Unified Racial Theory does not exist: in different works it is allocated from 4 to 7 major races and several dozen small anthropological types. Rasology is not in vain appeared in the era of slavery. The system at which some people dominate all the spheres of public life, and others obey them facelessly, needed a scientific substantiation.

In the middle of the XIX century, the Frenchman Joseph Gobino declared the Aryans of the Higher Race, intended for domination over the rest. Subsequently, racial theory served as a scientific basis for the Nazi policy of "Racha Hygiene", aimed at discrimination and the destruction of "defective" people, first of all, Jews and Gypsies. The ideas expressed by Gobno were developed in the pseudo-contaminated racial theory of Günther, which attributed to each anthropological type of certain mental abilities and character traits. It was she who became the basis of Nazi racial policies, the catastrophic consequences of which there is no need to list.

Modern science denies the division of people to races: most Western scientists believe that the external differences found within our species are not essential for the separation of additional categories and are not related to mental abilities. After World War II, all racial theories were recognized as insolvent.

Eugenics

Basic position: selection of man
in order to eliminate valuable qualities

The idea of \u200b\u200bbreeding in relation to man put forward Francis Galton, The cousin of Charles Darwin. The goal of Eugene, which became popular in the first decades of the XX century, was to improve the gene pool.

Supporters of "Positive Evgenika" argue that it can promote reproduction of people with qualities, valuable for society. But which qualities are valuable? Many people with high intelligence and creative potential suffer congenital somatic defects, which means that in the process of breeding may be overboard. In addition, the mechanisms of inheritance of such signs, as a predisposition to drunkenness or, on the contrary, good health and high IQ, the same poorly studied: many of these signs are manifested only when the environment is influenced in which a person is raised and lives.

Evgenika as science was discredited in the 1930s, when its provisions served as the rationale for the Racial Policy of Nazi Germany. In the third Reich, "Negative Evgenika" developed more actively: first of all, the Nazis wanted to stop the reproduction of people with hereditary defects and those who considered Rovo's defective. Evgenic programs for the compulsory sterilization of people who allowed serious crimes or "mentally defective," existed in Sweden, Finland, USA, Denmark, Estonia, Norway and Switzerland, they acted in some countries until the 1970s.

At the end of the 20th century, when experiments were successfully carried out on cloning higher mammals, and geneticists had the opportunity to make changes to DNA, the question of the ethicality of improving the human gene pool again became relevant.

Now the fight against hereditary diseases is carried out within the framework of genetics.

The scale of philosophical losses after the collapse of justifyism was such that scientists just did not want to talk about it for a long time. Theories ceased to be part of reality, part of the Divine Plan, to open which a new time science.

It became clear that theories are invented by people, and not find out in nature, and it was necessary to re-find grounds for confidence in such inventions of the mind. The rapid rates of the emergence of new scientific disciplines and, accordingly, new theories were given to this issue: from quantum mechanics to psychoanalysis, from genetics to extragalactic astronomy. Against this background, positivism became popular - the concept proposed in 1844 by the French philosopher with an Augmented right, according to which only experience is the foundation of scientific knowledge, and the theories only streamline empirical facts.

The positivism is finally rejected by Platonovsky ideal world, and with it was removed from the agenda the issue of "entity" or "nature" of various properties and phenomena. For a positivist there are only facts and various ways of their intercourse. "According to this image, scientific theory is a mathematical model that describes and systematizes the observations we produce. A good theory describes a wide range of phenomena on the basis of a few simple postulates and gives clear predictions that can be checked, "writes the famous astrophysicist Stephen Hawking in the New Year in the Walnut Header's book. This approach played a huge role in cleansing science from the controversial metaphysical principles, which took her inheritance from previous centuries.

Nevertheless, so far, many people cannot accept the fact that science does not answer questions "What is space?", "What is the nature of time?", "What is the essence of gravity?" A positivist believes that these questions are unscientific and must be reformulated, for example, as follows: "How to measure the distance?", "Are there reversible processes?", "What equation is described by the equation?"

The natural development of ideas of positivism was the idea that all scientific theories are obviously erroneous because they cannot take into account the entire diversity of the real world. They are born only to die under blows and more subtle and accurate experiments. And then they come to replace new, more advanced, but still temporary theories. This look, designed by Charles Pierce, was called phallyabism (from English. Fallible - "subject to errors"). It may seem that this point of view, being a mirror opposite justifyism, drops the value of science hardly to zero. How to trust theories if we are convinced that she is wrong? But in fact, phallibism simply describes the process of constant improvement of science. Yes, scientific knowledge cannot be absolutely reliable. But with each new step, the degree of reliability increases, and if we benefited, trusting the old theory, then we can trust the new one in which the errors detected. So, consistently getting rid of errors, science is approaching the truth (whatever it is), although it will never be able to achieve it.

Lamarkism

The evolutionary theory of Lamarca assumed the internally inherent inherent striving for improving and inheritance acquired in this case. The Darwin Research program replaced the metaphysical "desire for perfection" by the mechanisms of natural and sexual selection, which ensured its advantage in explanatory and predictive strength. In combination with genetics, Darwinism gave the beginning of the modern synthetic theory of evolution. And the inheritance of acquired features was compromised by the pseudo-scientific activities of Lysenko. Today, Lamarka ideas are limited to simulating evolution in artificial intelligence systems and in some studies on immunology.

Why god is not a hypothesis

Karl Popper, developing the approaches of positivism and phallibs, came to an even more radical conclusion: if the theory cannot be refuted, it cannot be considered scientific at all, even if the rest of it is consistent with our knowledge. In fact, because such a theory does not give any pricked predictions, and therefore its scientific value is zero. This his criterion of scientific relations, he called the principle of falsifier and put in one series with the requirements of internal consistency and compliance with the theory of well-known experimental data. It is the criterion of the popper that speaks of the bad creatures - the teachings about the divine creation of land, life and man. After all, the experiment that could contradict the idea of \u200b\u200bthe creation of the world is fundamentally impossible. And, by the way, for the same reason, it is not a scientific and hypothesis about the existence somewhere in the space of the brothers in mind - to disprove it, it would have to examine the entire endless volume of the universe. It is more interesting that, as Popper notes, "there is a huge number of other theories of this donatic or pseudo-scientific nature: for example, a racist interpretation of history is another of those impressive and all-absorbing theories that act on the weak minds like revelation."

The principle of falsifiability also removes the contradiction between science and religious faith. Vera - if, of course, it is genuine - can not be refuted by experience. And scientific theories should not look around for faith, since their only task is to organize this very experience. The conflict between science and religion may occur only on a misunderstanding if religious figures will dictate what experience should be, or scientists will try to make allegations of supernatural entities on the basis of their theories of the physical world. Both of these situations talk about the philosophical incompetence of the parties. Faith can not depend on experience, because it is impossible to believe in the checked hypotheses. And science cannot say anything about God, since the principle of falsifier does not allow him to consider from a scientific point of view - God cannot turn into a natural-scientific hypothesis. All this became clear to philosophers back in the first half of the 20th century, but it comes to public consciousness very slowly. Until now, many priests from religious positions oppose the purely scientific theory of evolution, and scientists with heat convince that science will know the truth and proves that there is no God. True, it may sometimes seem like religious doctrines and scientific data are clearly inconsistent (for example, on the issue of the creation of the world). In such cases, it should always be remembered that we are talking about the products of completely different methodologies of knowledge, which at all can not contradict each other.

Do not, however, think that the principle of falsification saved the philosophy of science from all problems. Positivism, being the direct opposite of speculative knowledge, also encountered serious difficulties. He made the concept of scientific fact itself. It turned out that experiments, observations and measurements cannot exist in themselves. They are always based on some kind of theory; As it is customary to say, "loaded the theory." With the usual weighing of the sausage in the store, we rely on the law of preserving the mass, the proportionality of the weight of the amount of substance and the law of the lever. And even when we are directly observing some phenomenon, we proceed from the fact that the state of the atmosphere, the optics of our eye and the processes of image processing in the brain are not deceived of us (although numerous messages about the UFO are forced to doubt it). Well, when using complex devices, it is sometimes necessary for many years of work to take into account all the theory measurements involved in the act. It is impossible to unambiguously separate the facts from theories, and in any experience, the comparison is not with the facts, as such, and with their interpretations on the basis of other theories, the task of a scientist is to make the theories, "playing" on the facts of facts, if possible Doubt did not doubt.

Ether theory

Put forward to explain the electromagnetic waves within Newtonian mechanics. The light was considered to be fluctuations in the ether - a hypothetical medium with very strange properties: solid, but practically weightless, all-pervading, but at the same time fascinated by moving bodies. The mechanical model of the ether was extremely unnatural. The special theory of relativity got rid of the ether, making changes to the Newtonian model of space and time. She sharply simplified the description of electromagnetic phenomena and gave a whole series of new predictions, the most famous of which is based on nuclear power equivalence of mass and energy E \u003d MC2.

And it is impossible to refute the theory too

After analyzing this problem and having studied the real behavior of scientists, the philosopher of Science Imre Lakatos came to the conclusion that it is impossible to experimentally the theory not only to prove, but also refute. If a well-proven theory stumbled on a new experiment, scientists are not in a hurry to refuse it, because confidence in it relies on a huge array of previous reinforcing data. So a single negative experiment and its interpretation is most likely due to questioning and will repeatedly recheck. But even if the contradiction is confirmed, you can add the theory of a new hypothesis, which explains the discovered anomaly. In this way, the theory can be protected indefinitely for a long time, since the number of experiments is always of course. Gradually, a whole belt of protective hypotheses can grow, which surround the so-called solid theory core and provide its performance, despite all the difficulties.

The rejection of the theory occurs no earlier than a fairly good alternative theory appears. Of course, it is expected to explain the most famous facts without contacting artificial protective hypotheses, but the most important thing is that it should indicate new areas of research, that is, to make the fundamentally new hypothesis tested by the experiment. Such the theories of Lakatos calls research programs and sees in their competition the process of science development. The oldest exhausted research programs lose adherents, new - acquire.

"I mathematically proved that the theory of relativity is erroneous," such letters regularly come to the editor of "around the world". Their authors are sincerely mistaken, believing that scientific theories can be proved or refuted. It can only be said to them in consolation that before the beginning of the 20th century, most scientists stayed in the same delusion. "But why, why are you so convinced that the generally accepted theory is true?!" - indignant to the refusal of grief-innovators. Many of them even believe that the "official science" there was a conspiracy of the conservatives who do not give the stroke to bold ideas to preserve their "warm place". Relax in this, alas, it is impossible, even pointing out expressive errors in mathematical calculations.

Kelvinovskoe compression

Explained the energy of the sun by its gravitational compression. It was proposed at the end of the XIX century by Lord Kelvin, when it became clear that chemical combustion does not provide sufficient power and radiation duration. Kelvinovsky mechanism "gave" the Sun 30 million years of life. Kelvin's supporters did not believe in geological data about a much larger age of land, considering it a problem of geology. In the 1930s, the theory of thermonuclear synthesis proposed a new source of stars energy, and the radioisotope method in the 1940s determined the age of the Earth in more than 3 billion years. Celvin's theory now explains the primary heating of the protocol before the nuclear burning of hydrogen began.

Selling paradigm cheap

In the rationale for their ideas, innovators usually speak of the "crisis of science", "change of paradigm" and the upcoming "scientific revolution". All this terminology is borrowed from the famous book of Thomas Kuna "Structure of scientific revolutions." "Under paradigms, I mean recognized by all scientific achievements, which for a certain time give the scientific community a model of problem formulation and their decisions," Kun writes in the preface to his book. All this is very similar to the struggle of Lakatos research programs, and the differences between the two concepts would have remained the theme for narrow-professional discussions if the Kun's theory was not perceived, especially in Russia, as a guide to action.

Kun, under the impression of the crisis of physics of the beginning of the 20th century, came to the conclusion about alternating the calm periods of "normal science", when there is a consensus on scientists regarding the scientific paradigm, and "scientific revolutions", when accumulated unresolved problems (anomalies) sweep the old paradigm and open the road to the new one. But here, from where this new paradigm appears, Kun did not explain, and most readers understood that its source is a creative impulse of a separate ingenious scientist. It became a huge temptation for many scientists and even engineers, only indirectly related to fundamental science. Li joke - just thinking up with a successful paradigm and you can become new Copernicus, Newton or Einstein.

As a result, a whole market for "new paradigms" was formed. Some authors take a relatively solid base: the nosphere of the Vernadsky, the synergetic of the Prigogina, Mandelbrot Fractals, the general theory of Ludwig's systems von Bertalafio. But so far, all attempts to build on the basis of such general concepts a clear research program remains not too successful because they are practically devoid of predictive strength - they do not follow the checked hypotheses. Others tend to "summarize" science, including religious and mystical ideas. But it is precisely getting rid of these irrational ideas, science has reached modern reliability and effectiveness. Today, the unification of science with mysticism is like an attempt to take a cart on board the aircraft in the hope of increasing the joint efficiency. Finally, there are a lot of "modest refutors", which do not claim to create a new paradigm, but only try to destroy the old, say, the theory of relativity, quantum mechanics or the theory of evolution. They simply do not know that the research program cannot be disproved, but you can only win in a competitive struggle, achieving greater efficiency and predictive strength.

But the most important thing is that it is obscured by all these attempts on failure, is not understanding that the concept of scientific revolutions and paradigm changes are suitable only for retrospective analysis of science development. So beautiful and slim and slim process of becoming new scientific views looks only from the distance to dozens and hundreds of years, through the prism written by the winners of the textbooks. And near even the most outstanding scientists often cannot recognize which of rival research programs will eventually be the most effective.

Bum of homegrown pseudowdaories (some of them are proposed completely disinterestedly, the other - in order to acquire scientific status and take advantage of its advantages) creates a real threat to the existence of science in Russia today. On the one hand, such theories distract the public resources (money and attention), intended for science, on the other - reduce confidence in science as a whole, because there are no noise, no useful exit, and sometimes (as in advertising of miracle medical devices) People can be applied to real damage.

And so, after all that we learned about the inner kitchen of science, we return to the question: does she deserve that special confidence that society is shown? Our world, as we know today, it works quite difficult, and humanity studies him for a long time. Therefore, only one who purposefully seeks to learn something new and standing, relying on a huge array of already accumulated knowledge. It can be said that humanity has its collective cognitive activity to prevent the caste of professional scientists who constantly improve their methodology. In the last centuries, knowledge gained by this method allowed to radically change life for the better (for example, the average life of life almost doubled). This, apparently, a sufficient basis to trust science as a social institution that implements an effective method. But it is very important to understand where the borders of science lie: you should not wait for it from it that she cannot give (the final truth, for example), and be able to expose (at least for themselves) those who, by virtue of personal interests, only hides with the good name of science , actually doing something completely different.

Scientific counterrevolution of the twentieth century

If you are wondering why science, for so many years, who used the highest trust, even distant people from her, suddenly, in a relatively short time, this trust was lost, it is quite natural to turn to philosophy and history. Replies given by philosophers seem to be quite weighty so that such a turn of public opinion is explained. Scientific theories, they say, cannot qualify for truth; Moreover: the very concept of truth is a "transcendental monster", from which any theoretical reasoning should be delivered. Apparently known only experimental facts, and the value of theory is extremely in order to economically explain the greatest number of facts. Theories are compared with football teams, which should compete with each other in an honest match, explaining the same facts, and the loss in the match does not imply an unfortunate theory - it should be improved its technique and improve its explanatory potential.
Little to some of the scientists, however, liked the advice of philosophers, and for the most part they tried to avoid the stormy philosophical discussions of the mid-twentieth century about what science and what criteria determine the status of scientific theory. But these discussions themselves were subsided over time, and the place of Kun with Lakatos was taken by representatives of the new generation of sociologists, who paid attention to the fact that in the walls of the laboratory "Experimental Fact", rather, "constructed" than is detected. The same words in different research teams can mean completely different things, moreover: the same words as part of the same laboratory can mean something one when they are applied to the most of this laboratory, and something other as Only speech comes about competitors. The right attitude towards scientific groups is the same as the native tribes in the Pacific Islands: Aborigines can do something useful, but it is practically impossible to understand what they are impellent. Communication with them should be limited to a "zone of exchange", where we bring to the Citz rolls and all sorts of simple trinkets and see what they will be offered in return. Even an intelligent person, brought up on the ideals of the "Free Market", is already incomprehensible, as interpreted in the middle of the twentieth century philosophers of science in the middle of the twentieth century, but by and large, he agrees with them: science is not enough to help him in the sense of worldview, but the diverse applications bring fruit Extremely useful, pleasant and comfortable. It cannot be said that these theories like the scientists more philosophical, but they fully adequately reflect the evolution of public consciousness.
The emerging situation is exactly the opposite of the one that we used to identify the words "scientific revolution of the XVII century". Throughout the XVI-XVII centuries, the inductive-deductive method of knowledge created at the dawn of the new time the largest thinkers of the era (Galileem, Descartes, Bacon, Newton), gradually turned into the basis of the worldview tools of any educated person. In the new natural science, which combined the visibility of the experiment with the severity of Euclidean geometry, did not see any useful information, but a certain view of life, nature and society that promotes the goals of the cognition of truth, and improving the conditions of human existence. Prior to the beginning of the twentieth century, the naturalist and philosopher united, as a rule, in one person.
Parting of culture with science began with a divorce of natural science with philosophy. You can judge him at least according to the Nobel laureate, one of the most authoritative physicists of modernity Stephen Weinberg. In his book, "Dreams of final theory" one of chapters is called - "against philosophy". "I am unknown by a single scientist who made a noticeable contribution to the development of physics in the post-war period, whose work would significantly help the works of philosophers," he writes there. And recalling the comment on Ogen Wigner about the "incomprehensible effectiveness of mathematics in the natural sciences," adds: "I want to point to another an equally amazing phenomenon - the incomprehensible inefficiency of philosophy." And it is still softly said: Some of his colleagues directly accused Kuna in hydration, since they did not like his thesis that science should not claim the desire to truth, and the theory could not be proven or refutable. But accused philosophers in hydration is also low productively, as to re-educate public opinion. A person from nature is striving for the truth, and looking for her where he will promise her.
Dmitry Bayuk, Candidate F.-M. n., Member of the American Society of Historians of Science

Alexander Sergeev