Chronicle of events, 1350-1648

1356 - Battle of Poitiers

On September 19, one of the greatest battles of the Hundred Years War took place. It was attended on the one hand by French troops under the leadership of King John II the Good, and on the other - by English troops under the leadership of the Black Prince Edward. Despite the overwhelming numerical superiority of the French, the British won a decisive victory, and the French king was captured.

1361 - Rise of Tamerlane

In 1361, Timur the conqueror left the subordination of the Mongol Khan and went over to the side of his enemies. He led the life of an adventurer and during one of the skirmishes he lost two fingers of his right hand, and was also seriously wounded in his right leg. Because of the consequences of this injury, he suffered all his life, with which many associate his cruelty, extraordinary even for those times. Lameness gave him the nickname "lame Timur" - Timur-e lang - later turned into the extant "Tamerlane".

1378 - Great Schism

In 1377, the last Pope of the period of the Avignon captivity, Gregory XI, decided to return from Avignon to Rome. However, he died shortly thereafter, and then a split occurred in the Roman Catholic Church: the first elections of the Pope were held under pressure from the Roman crowd and were invalidated. The elected Pope was excommunicated, and a new Pope was soon elected. However, Urbant VI, who was elected first, continued to act as Pope from Rome, and Clement VII, who was elected second, retired back to Avignon. Following the split in the church, a split also occurred among European countries. The final point in this story was set only in 1417, with the beginning of the reign of Pope Martin V.

1380 - The emergence of the Kalmar Union

In the XIV century, the Scandinavian countries experienced great difficulties associated with the monopolization of trade in the Baltic by the German free cities and the Hansa. This was contrasted with the unification of Denmark, Norway and Sweden into a union under the supreme authority of the Danish kings. At the same time, the countries sacrificed their sovereignty, but formally remained independent. The first in 1380 to unite and enter into a union under the rule of Queen Margaret of Denmark and Norway, economically dependent on her.

1381 - Peasant uprising in England

In 1381, an uprising took place, which became the largest in the history of medieval England. In the course of it, the rebels managed to capture Canterbury and London, and then storm the Tower. King Richard II was forced to negotiate and even promised to fulfill the numerous demands of the rebels, among which were the abolition of serfdom and equalization in the rights of all classes. However, during the second meeting, the king's associates killed the leader of the rebels, Wat Tyler, after which the uprising was suppressed.

1389 - Battle of the Kosovo field

In 1389, one of the largest battles between Christians and the Ottoman Empire took place. On July 28, the army of the Serbian prince Lazar, numbering 80,000 people, clashed with the army of Murad, numbering about 300,000 people. During the battle, both leaders were killed and the Serbian army was defeated. But, despite this, Serbia formally retained its independence, although it paid tribute and pledged to supply the Turkish Port with an auxiliary army.

1392 - A fit of madness at Charles VI

In August 1392, King Charles VI of France experienced a fit of insanity for the first time. In the future, the king's illness led to a long civil war, which ended with the collapse of France as a state. Part of its territory was captured by the British, and part was under the control of the princes of the blood, who became virtually independent rulers. The king's successors had to start from scratch - expel the British, rein in the princes and restore basic state mechanisms.

1393 - Chess allowed

Since its penetration into Europe, the game of chess has caused constant discontent with the Church. In 1161, Catholic Cardinal Damiani issued a decree banning the playing of chess among the clergy. Subsequently, such prohibitions were issued not only by church leaders, but also by secular rulers - the English king Edward IV, the French Louis IX, and the Polish monarch Casimir IV. However, many continued to play chess underground, and in 1393 the ban was finally lifted at the Regenburg Cathedral.

1396 - Nikopol crusade

In 1396, the last major crusade of the Middle Ages took place. A large army of crusaders concentrated under the leadership of the Hungarian king Sigismund, Count John of Neversky and others. However, the Crusaders suffered a severe defeat at the hands of the Turks at the Battle of Nikopol, which forced them to abandon their further plans.

1408 - Rebirth of the Order of the Dragon

On December 13, 1408, Holy Roman Emperor Sigismund I of Luxembourg revives the previously existing Order of the Dragon. The order included the best of the knights, and its goals were the task of protecting the Cross of the Lord from the Turks. Distinctive sign orders were medallions with the image of a dragon coiled into a ring.

1410 - Battle of Grunwald

On July 15, 1410, the army of the Teutonic Order entered into battle with the united army of the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The battle ended with the defeat of the Teutonic troops, which significantly undermined the influence of the Order, which subsequently led to its collapse.

1415 - Execution of Jan Hus

In 1415, Jan Hus, who by that time was one of the prominent reformers of Bohemia, arrived in Constanta for the cathedral. His goal was to unite the split Roman Catholic Church. Despite the fact that the emperor of the Holy Roman Empire promised him personal safety, Jan Hus was accused of heresy and captured. On July 6, 1415, he was burned at Constance, along with all his labors. His death became the reason for the long Hussite wars that his followers waged against the Habsburgs and their allies.

1415 - Battle of Agincourt

On October 25, 1415, English and French troops met at the Battle of Agincourt. Despite the significant numerical superiority of the French, they suffered a heavy defeat at the hands of the British. This development of events became possible thanks to the extensive use of arrows by the British, armed with long bows: they accounted for up to 4/5 of the English army.

1429 - Joan of Arc appears

At the end of the 20s of the 15th century, France was in a very difficult situation. Most of its territory was captured by British troops and it seemed that soon the whole country would come under the rule of England. However, the appearance of Jeanne d'Arc was able to save the situation - the detachments under her command lifted the siege of the seemingly doomed Orleans, and then carried out a successful operation to free the Loire. It was Jeanne who initiated the coronation Charles VII, an event that significantly rallied the nation. The succession of successes was interrupted by the capture of Jeanne, she was captured by the British on May 29, 1430.

1431 - Burning of Jeanne d'Arc

On May 30, 1431, the French national heroine Jeanne d'Arc was burned at the stake. At the trial, which was arranged by the British, she was accused of heresy, apostasy and idolatry, for which she was sentenced to death. Subsequently, all charges against her were dropped, and in 1920 she was canonized.

1436 - The disintegration of Moldova

The death of the old ruler of Moldova, Alexander I the Good, which occurred in 1432, led to an internecine war within the country. Despite the fact that one of the ruler's sons, Ilya, immediately took the throne, already in 1433 his brother Stephen began to challenge the right to rule. After a long war, Moldova was divided into two states - the Upper and Lower countries, each of which was ruled by one of the brothers. But the weak Moldovan rulers were unable to save their lands from the Turkish conquerors.

1438 - New Holy Roman Emperor

On March 18, 1438, Albrecht II was elected king of Germany by the German electors. Thus, he became the first Habsburg to unite the thrones of Austria, Bohemia, Hungary and Germany under his arm. From that year until the fall of the Holy Roman Empire in 1806, its throne was permanently (except for a short period from 1742 to 1745) occupied by the Habsburgs.

1439 - Unification of the Catholic and Orthodox Churches

In 1439, during the Ferraro-Florentine Council, an agreement of unification - union - was signed between the Orthodox and Catholic Churches. According to the agreement, the Orthodox kept all their rituals, but the Pope became the head of the church. However, already in 1448, the Russian Church officially broke off communion with the Catholic Church through a decision on autocephaly (a completely independent church), headed by the Patriarch, not the Pope.

1445 - Invention of book printing

In 1445, the German artisan Johannes Gutenberg began to make metal typesetting, which he used for typography. Subsequently, his invention spread throughout the world and led to the appearance of typography in the modern sense.

1453 - End of the Hundred Years War

In 1451, France began the final campaign of the Hundred Years War - the liberation of Normandy and Guinea from British troops. After the end of the war in 1453, Calais remained the only English outpost on the continent.

1453 - Decline of Byzantium

On May 29, 1453, an end was put in the history of the Byzantine Empire, the last fragment of ancient Rome. After the capture of Constantinople, the Arab Sultan Mohamed ordered to expose the head of the Roman Emperor Constantine XI for all to see, and to bury the body with royal honors. The remaining Byzantine lands became part of the Ottoman Empire.

1455 - War of the Scarlet and White Rose

After the unsuccessful end of the Hundred Years War, a struggle for the throne began in England, in which supporters of the two branches of the Plantogenet dynasty took part. In the course of a fierce struggle, power changed hands several times and a significant part of the heirs to the throne, as well as the English lords and chivalry, were destroyed.

1462 - Dracula against the Ottoman Empire

The Ottoman Empire captured the Balkans, including the independent principality of Wallachia in southern Romania. But in 1461, the ruler of Wallachia, Vlad III, nicknamed Dracula, refused to pay tribute to the Turkish sultan, and on next year, having armed the free peasants and townspeople, forced the Turkish army led by Sultan Mehmed II to retreat. However, he was subsequently betrayed by his boyars, and fled to Hungary.

1466 - Travel of Afanasy Nikitin

In 1466, the Tver merchant Afanasy Nikitin set off on a journey, as a result of which he became the first Russian person to visit India. During his travels, he compiled travel notes known as Voyage across the Three Seas. They contained detailed information about India and were subsequently translated into many European languages ​​as well.

1469 - Unification of Castile and Aragon

In 1469 the kingdoms of Castile and Aragon united into a single state - Spain. This became possible only after the dynastic marriage of Queen Isabella of Castile and Prince Ferdinand of Aragonese. To secure absolute power, the royal couple created the Inquisition and suppressed the resistance of the large feudal lords, as well as the nobility.

1474 - Burgundy Wars

By the end of the 15th century, the dukes of Burgundy were able to compete in economic and military power with the French kings, of which they were vassals. But their big drawback was that the most economically developed parts of the duchy were separated from the rest of the territory of France and the principalities of the Holy Roman Empire. Since 1474, the Duke of Burgundy Charles the Bold began a military campaign against France and the Swiss Union. but fighting developed unsuccessfully, and ended in 1477 with the death of Charles at the Battle of Nancy.

1483 - Cruel Inquisitor

In 1483, the first "Grand Inquisitor" of Torquemada was appointed in Spain, whose name later became a symbol of religious reaction. Upon his appointment, Torquemada developed a code that governed the process of the Inquisition. Then he began persecution, which mainly affected Jews and Muslims who had recently converted to Christianity. They were accused of insincerely professing a new faith and secretly performing rituals of forbidden cults.

1485 - Modern England

With the end of the War of the Scarlet and White Roses, the Tudor dynasty came to power in England. With their arrival, New Time began on the English islands, the country took an active part in European politics, many internal reforms were carried out, which significantly strengthened the position of the kingdom.

1492 - Completion of the Reconquista

For a long time on the Iberian Peninsula there was a protracted war, the purpose of which was the conquest of the kingdoms of the Moors by Christians, which was called the Reconquista. It ended in 1492 when the last Muslim kingdom in the Pyrenees, the Emirate of Granada, was captured.

1492 - Discovery of the New World

In 1492, the Spanish navigator Christopher Columbus set out on his first voyage, seeking to find a sea route to India. Under his command were only three ships, with a total crew of 90 people. On October 12, travelers discovered the first land in the western hemisphere, the island of San Salvador, this number is considered the date of the official opening of the New World.

1494 - Redivision of the world

In 1494, an agreement was concluded in the city of Tordesillas, which for a long time determined the boundaries of the spheres of influence of Spain and Portugal in the Atlantic Ocean. The dividing line crossed both poles, and passed 1200 km west of Cape Verde Island. The seas and lands to the west of this line went to the kingdom of Portugal, and to the east to Spain. The treaty was approved by the bull of Pope Julius II in 1506.

1498 - Sea route to India

On July 8, 1497, the Portuguese traveler Vasco da Gama left Lisbon for India. He circled Africa from the south, circling the Cape of Good Hope, and reached the southwestern coast of India on May 20, 1498. Vasco da Gama became the first European to make a sea voyage to India. Returning to Portugal in September 1499, Vasco da Gama was greeted with great honor, received a large monetary award and the title "Admiral of the Indian Ocean".

1501 - The emergence of Azerbaijan

In 1501, the Iranian prince Ismail I seized Iranian Azerbaijan and proclaimed himself a shahinshah. After that, he began to mint his own coins, and then isolated his state from the rest of the Muslim countries, proclaiming the Shi'ism direction of Islam as the main state religion, in contrast to the Sunnism that prevailed in other countries. Under Ismail, the state began to be called Azerbaijan, and the Turkic language remained the state language for almost a century.

1502 - Discovery of America

On April 3, 1502, the last expedition of Christopher Columbus began, during which the great navigator discovered the Northern and South America... On September 12, the expedition departed from the island of Hispaniola towards Spain.

1505 - Mystery of the Centuries

In 1505, the great Italian Leonardo da Vinci painted one of the most famous paintings in human history, the Mona Lisa. Its perfect formula captivated the artists of subsequent eras, who repeatedly and unsuccessfully tried to create copies of the masterpiece.

1507 - America got a name

For a long time after the discovery of the American continent, it was called the "West Indies", which was completely wrong. Only in 1507 was the name for the new land proposed - "America", in honor of the Italian explorer and cartographer Amerigo Vespucci. The name was proposed by a geographer from Lorraine named Waldseemüller, and since then this name has become official for the New World.

1510 - Third Rome

In 1510, the monk of the Pskov Elizarov Monastery, Philotheus, turned to Vasily III with an important message, in which he argued that Moscow should become a new world religious center. He came to this conclusion, following the thesis of the godly unity of the entire Christian world. He also argued that the first center of the world was old Rome, followed by new Rome - Constantinople, and recently the third Rome - Moscow - has replaced them. "Two Romes have fallen," Philotheus asserted, "and the third is still there, and there will be no fourth."

1516 - Venetian Ghetto

For a long time, the Jews in Venice could not obtain land for permanent residence... Only in the 16th century did they receive the right to permanent residence within the city - on March 29, 1516, the corresponding government decision was announced. It said: “The Jews should all settle together in the houses of the Court, which is located in the ghetto near San Girolamo, and so that they do not leave at night, on the one hand through the bridge, and on the other - across the large bridge, two gates should be built , which will be guarded by four Christian guards, and the Jews will pay for them. "

1517 - Expansion of the Ottoman Empire

On January 22, 1517, Egypt became part of the Ottoman Empire. At that time, it was the state of the Mamelukes, members of a military caste, which recruited young slaves of Caucasian and Turkic origin. But, despite submission to the Turkish pasha, the Mamelukes managed to maintain their privileged status in Turkish society.

1517 - The beginning of the Reformation

In 1517, Martin Luther spoke at Wittenberg with 95 theses of the reforms of the Catholic Church. The Reformation began, a massive social and political movement in Western and Central Europe, with the goal of returning to the original traditions of Christianity. This process caused many upheavals in Europe, and was finally consolidated by the Peace of Westphalia in 1648.

1519 - Conquest of Mexico by Cortez

In February 1519, Cortez's flotilla left Cuba and headed towards the mainland. In early March, the expedition landed at a place called Veracruz. After suppressing the resistance of the local residents, Cortes declared these lands belonging to the king of Spain Charles V. Then the expedition headed further west, to the lands of the Aztecs. There, the Spaniards captured the leader of the Aztecs, Montezuma II, and took over their state. The victory of the Spaniards was achieved not so much thanks to horses, cannons and firearms (although the Indians did not have any of the above), but because of the fragmentation and internal struggle of clans in the Aztec empire, as well as the devastating epidemic that swept across the state.

1525 - Battle of Pavia

On February 23, 1525, the first major battle in the history of the New Time took place. The battle took place under the walls of the city of Pavia, defended by the Spaniards, which was under siege by French troops. Thanks to the use of a new type of firearms - muskets, the Spaniards won a decisive victory and captured the French king.

1528 - Union of Christians and Muslims

Back in the late 15th century, France and the Ottoman Empire began to conduct diplomatic relations. For the Turks, France was a natural and necessary ally against Hungary; at the same time, the countries did not have overlapping interests, which means they did not have any reasons for enmity. On the final decision on an incredible military alliance with the Muslims against the Christian state, France was prompted by the defeat at the Battle of Pavia, and already in February 1525 an embassy was sent to the Turks.

1530 - Gift of the Emperor

For a long time, the Hospitaller Order State was located on the island of Rhodes. However, in 1522, after a long siege by the Ottoman army, the Hospitallers were forced to leave the island. Only in 1530 the order received its land - Emperor Charles V handed over the island of Malta to the Hospitallers, on which the order state was located until 1798, after which the order began to be called Malta.

1534 - Establishment of the Church of England

In 1534, King Henry VIII of England began to reform the Church of England. The immediate reason for this was the Pope's refusal to approve the divorce of Henry VIII and Catherine of Aragon and his marriage to Anne Boleyn. The renovated church was named Anglican, and the king became its head, but it retained all Catholic rites.

1535 - Viceroyalty of New Spain

In 1535, the Spanish colonies in North America united to form the Viceroyalty of New Spain. New Spain included the modern territories of Mexico, the southwestern states of the United States (as well as Florida), Guatemala, Belize, Nicaragua, El Salvador, Costa Rica and Cuba. In addition, the Philippines and various islands in the Pacific Ocean and the Caribbean were subordinate to New Spain. The capital was located in Mexico City, and the viceroy who was appointed was directly subordinate to the monarch of Spain. The first Viceroy of New Spain was Antonio de Mendoza.

1536 - Execution of Anne Boleyn

In May 1536, the second wife of Henry VIII, King of England, went to the scaffold on charges of adultery, and therefore treason. According to contemporaries, the real reasons for this were the difficult relationship between the spouses and Anna's inability to give the king a son.

1536 - Disintegration of the Kalmar Union

In 1536 the Kalmar Union ended its existence. This happened after Denmark declared Norway its province. Despite the fact that Norway retained its laws and a number of state bodies, the former Norwegian territories - Iceland, Greenland and the Faroe Islands - passed into the possession of Denmark.

1540 - Creation of the Jesuit Order

In 1539, Pope Paul III was presented with the charter of a new monastic order. Its main difference from other similar formations was the addition to the three standard vows: obedience, chastity and non-covetousness of the fourth - the vow of direct submission to the Holy Father. On September 27, 1540, the charter of the Society of Jesus, as the order was called, was approved by the papal bull.

1541 - King of Ireland

Until 1536, Ireland was ruled by henchmen of England who did not have absolute power. Having suppressed the rebellion of one of the governors, King Henry VIII of England decided to re-conquer the island and already in 1541 Henry proclaimed Ireland a kingdom and himself its king. Over the next hundred years, the British strengthened their control over Ireland, although they could not turn the Irish into Protestants, they remained ardent Catholics as before.

1543 - New astronomical teaching

In 1543 Copernicus' main work was published in Nuremberg. It was the fruit of his more than 30 years of work in Frombork, the treatise On the Circulation of the Celestial Spheres. Despite the fact that the essay was dedicated to Pope Paul III, its first part spoke about the sphericity of the Earth, which did not correspond to Catholic religious dogmas about the world order.

1553 - The Rise of Bloody Mary

In October 1553, Mary I was crowned in London. The queen was thirty-seven years old, twenty of which were years of trial for her. From the very first days of her reign, Mary began to actively act: her main task was to return England to the fold of the Catholic Church. In memory, she remained as Mary the Bloody (or Bloody Mary), who received such a nickname for the cruel reprisals against Protestants.

1555 - Trade between Russia and England

In 1555, the English navigator Richard Chancellor visited Russia for the second time. A year later, he sailed to England with four heavily laden ships and a Russian envoy. The British received a letter allowing them to trade duty-free in all Russian cities.

1555 - Augsburg Religious World

On September 25, 1555, the Reichstag took place in Augsburg, at which the Lutheran and Catholic subjects of the Holy Roman Empire concluded an agreement of peace. Under this agreement, Lutheranism was recognized as the official religion on the territory of the empire, and the imperial estates received the right to choose their religion. At the same time, the subjects of the empire still could not choose their religion, which led to the emergence of the expression "whose power, that is the faith."

1559 - The beginning of the reign of Elizabeth of England

At the beginning of 1559, one of the most famous rulers of the Middle Ages, Elizabeth I of England, ascended the English throne. Thanks to her competent management, the country, divided into two irreconcilable camps, escaped a civil war. Later, under her rule, England became one of the greatest powers in Europe.

1564 - Birth of a Genius

On April 26, 1564, a boy named William Shakespeare was baptized in an English church. In the future, he will become the most famous playwright of all time, and from under his pen will come out such immortal creations as "Hamlet", "Romeo and Juliet", "Macbeth" and many others.

1569 - Union of Lublin

On July 1, 1569, a new state appeared on the map of Europe, uniting the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania within its borders. The state was headed by a popular assembly - the Diet - together with the elected king. The state received the name "Rzeczpospolita".

1571 - Sacred League

At the end of the 16th century, the Ottoman Turks almost completely controlled the Eastern Mediterranean. This greatly interfered with many European states, which is why on May 25, 1571, the Republic of Venice, Spain, Vatican, Genoa, Savoy, Malta, Taskana and Parma united into a coalition of Christian Catholic countries - the Holy League. Their main goal was to neutralize the power of the Turkish fleet, and to free the eastern Mediterranean from its control.

1571 - Third Battle of Lepanto

On October 7, 1571, the largest naval battle of the 16th century took place. It was attended by the combined forces of the Holy League, opposing the fleet of the Ottoman Empire. As a result of this battle, the Turks lost control of the eastern Mediterranean Sea, and the Holy League, created to remove this control, was disbanded.

1572 - St. Bartholomew's Night

On the night of August 24, 1572, one of the most terrible events in the history of France took place in Paris. Then, by order of Catherine de Medici, mother of King Charles IX, from 3 to 10 thousand Huguenots, French Protestants, were killed in Paris. This order was given after the failed attempt on the leader of the Protestants, Gaspard de Coligny, who claimed power in the country. Following these events, about 200 thousand more people left the country.

1579 - Creation of the Utrecht Union

In 1579, to fight against Spanish rule, the northern provinces of the Netherlands united into the Utrecht Union. The treaty actually envisioned the creation of a single state, the Republic of the United Provinces, which was supposed to have a federal structure. The provinces were supposed to create a unified financial system, conduct a joint foreign policy, and create a unified army.

1580 - Francis Drake's voyage around the world

On September 26, 1580, the English navigator Francis Drake returned from a voyage around the world, which he embarked on in 1577 at the behest of Queen Elizabeth. From his voyage, he brought back 600,000 pounds, gold, which he plundered from Spanish ships, for which he was awarded a knighthood.

1581 - Creation of the Ostrog Bible

In 1581 in Ostrog, the Russian pioneer printer Ivan Fedorov created the first Bible in Church Slavonic. This was done with the help of the Polish Orthodox prince, Konstantin Ostrog. The Ostrog Bible was of great importance for Orthodox education in Ukraine and Belarus, where it resisted strong Catholic influence.

1582 - The beginning of the conquest of Western Siberia

On September 1, 1582, the Cossack ataman Ermak Timofeevich crossed the Ural Mountains, and began the conquest of Western Siberia. Initially, he achieved great success by defeating the Tatar Khan Kuchum. However, in the future, his detachment suffered heavy losses, while not receiving sufficient reinforcements. This led to the fact that on August 6, 1585, Yermak Timofeevich died, and the Cossacks were forced to retreat back to the Russian lands.

1588 - The defeat of the "Invincible Armada"

Beginning in 1586, King Philip II of Spain began to equip a large fleet that was intended to conquer England. In 1588, a fleet of 130 galleons was ready, and on July 29 of that year, the great Battle of Graveline took place in the English Channel. Thanks to the skill of the British admirals, the Spanish fleet was defeated. This battle was a turning point in the history of Spain, from which the decline of the great naval empire began.

1596 - Brest Union

In 1596, on the territory of the Polish-Lithuanian Commonwealth, the unification of the Catholic and Orthodox churches took place, which took place at a cathedral in Brest. According to this union, the Orthodox Church of Ukraine and Belarus recognized the Pope as its head, but kept worship in the Slavic language and the rituals of the Orthodox Church. This agreement was required in order to weaken the cultural ties of Ukrainians and Belarusians with the Russian people, as well as to ensure for the highest Orthodox clergy the same rights as for the Catholic.

1598 - Adoption of the Edict of Nantes

At the end of the 16th century, the lands of France were torn apart by constant wars between Huguenots and Catholics. To put an end to this, the French king Henry IV issued a decree, according to which on April 13, 1598, an edict was approved in Nantes, granting the French Protestant Huguenots religious rights and full equality with Catholics. No edict of the sixteenth century offered more tolerance than that of Nantes. Subsequently, this allowed ill-wishers to accuse the Huguenots of trying to form a state within a state.

1595 - A new kind of cards

In 1595 Gerhard Mercator introduced new way drawing nautical charts, called the "Mercator projection". When using it, angles and shapes are not distorted on the map, however, distances are saved only at the equator. This method is still used to draw nautical and aeronautical charts.

1600 - Establishment of the East India Company

On December 31, 1600, Queen Elizabeth I of Great Britain signed a decree establishing the British East India Company. The company was a joint stock company, headed by a governor and a board of directors who were accountable to the shareholders' meeting. The initial authorized capital of the company was 72 thousand pounds. Soon after its creation, the company received government and military functions, which it lost only in 1858.

1603 - The ascent of Jacob I

After the death of Elizabeth I, James VI of Scotland, also known as James I of England, ascended to the English throne. With his arrival, for the first time there was a unification of the English and Scottish lands under the rule of one overlord.

1606 - Discovery of Australia

In 1606, a small Dutch expedition led by Willem Janz made the first landing of Europeans on the Australian continent. In its course, the east and north coasts of Australia were mapped.

1607 - The first colony of England in America

In 1607, the first English colony was founded in America. She received the name Virginia - in honor of the great English "virgin queen" Elizabeth I.

1608 - Evangelical Union

In 1608, the Protestants united in the so-called Evangelical Union. The union included eight Protestant princes and 17 Protestant cities of the Holy Roman Empire. The reason for the unification was the conquest of the free city of Donauvert by the Catholics, led by Maximilian of Bavaria, after the attack of the Protestants on the Catholic procession. During the Thirty Years War, the Evangelical Union was defeated several times by the Catholic League and ceased to exist in 1621.

1609 - Catholic League

The union was organized in 1609 as a union of the Catholic principalities of Germany on the eve of the Thirty Years' War. It was the response of German Catholics to the creation of the Evangelical Union of Protestants in 1608. The league included Bavaria, the spiritual principalities - the bishoprics of Cologne, Trier, Mainz and Würzburg. But the Archbishopric of Salzburg and a number of other Catholic principalities were not included in the league.

1614 - Star of the Duke of Buckingham

In 1614 George Villiers Buckingham was introduced to King James I of England and Scotland. The king then did not even suspect what role this young nobleman would play in the history of England. It is believed that it was Buckingham's conflict with the Spanish court that caused the breakdown of negotiations on the marriage of the Prince of Wales with the Infanta, and the subsequent declaration of war on Spain. Buckingham's activities as the de facto head of the British government, favored by royal grace, introduced instability in foreign policy, which led to unsuccessful wars with Spain and France. Parliament has repeatedly accused Buckingham of violating national interests and demanded a trial against him. On August 23, 1628, Buckingham was killed in his apartment.

1618 - The beginning of the Thirty Years' War

By the beginning of the 17th century, there were many explosive regions in the territory of the Holy Roman Empire. The main reason for this situation was the increasing pressure of the Catholic Church, which wanted to restore the former influence lost after the Augsburg religious world... The situation worsened even more when an ardent Catholic, Ferdinand of Styria, became the head of the empire. As a result, on May 23, 1618, an uprising began in Protestant Bohemia, which later developed into one of the longest and bloodiest wars of that period, affecting most of Europe.

1628 - Taking of La Rochelle

Since 1568, the fortified city of La Rochelle became the center of the French Protestants - the Huguenots. In 1627, the soldiers of La Rochelle opposed the royal French troops, King Louis XIII ordered the start of the siege of the city, which ended in 1628 with his capture, as well as new persecution of the Huguenots, who fled the country en masse. The capture of La Rochelle was one of the most famous deeds of Cardinal Richelieu.

1633 - The trial of Galileo

At the beginning of the 17th century, the theory of the world order, proposed by Copernicus in 1543, gradually became more widespread. However, at the same time, there was a second view of the world order, representing the earth as flat, which was defended by the followers of Ptolemy. In 1632, with the permission of Pope Urbant VIII, Galileo Galilei published a book written in the form of a dialogue between the followers of both theories. However, a few months later, the sale of the book was banned, and the author was tried. However, despite the lengthy investigation, the trial failed, and Galileo had to be released.

1635 - Creation of the French Academy

On January 29, 1635, Cardinal Richelieu founded the famous French Academy. The Academy was created to “make French not only elegant, but also capable of interpreting all arts and sciences. "

1637 - Cartesian coordinate system

The Renaissance era was a time of great discoveries in all fields of science and art. And one of the greatest discoveries in the field of mathematical sciences was the work of Rene Descartes "Discourse on the method that allows you to direct your mind and seek truth in the sciences." As a result of this work, analytic geometry was created, and worldwide known system coordinates - Cartesian.

1637 - Uprising in Scotland

With the coming to power of Charles I, the new king of England and Scotland, he began to attempt to reform the Scottish Church. However, during the first attempt to hold a divine service according to the new liturgy, on July 23, 1637, there were spontaneous unrest in Edinburgh. Despite the attempts made by the king to resolve the problem peacefully, this did not succeed, and eventually led to a break, which went down in history as the "Episcopal Wars".

1642 - English bourgeois revolution

In 1642, a civil war broke out in England, during which the English parliament opposed the English king Charles I. The result of this struggle was the transition from an absolute monarchy to a constitutional one, which limited the king's power to the power of parliament and guaranteed civil liberties to the people.

1642 - First computer

In 1642, 19-year-old Frenchman Blaise Pascal created his first "Summing Machine". Pascal's car looked like a box with numerous gears connected to each other. The added numbers were introduced by turning the wheels accordingly. This principle became the basis for the creation of most computing devices for almost 300 years. Thus began the era of computing.

1648 - Peace of Westphalia

The Thirty Years' War was the most difficult war in the history of Europe during the Renaissance. The participating countries suffered huge losses in population and economy. Therefore, back in 1638, the Pope and the Danish king called for an end to the war. This, however, happened much later - on October 24, 1648, at the same time a peace treaty was signed in Münster and Osnabrück. He went down in history under the name of Westphalian, and from this moment it is customary to lead the history of the system of modern international relations.

For several centuries, Russia experienced ups and downs, but eventually became a kingdom with its capital in Moscow.

Brief periodization

The history of Russia began in 862, when the Viking Rurik arrived in Novgorod, who was proclaimed a prince in this city. Under his successor, the political center moved to Kiev. With the onset of fragmentation in Russia, several cities at once began to argue with each other for the right to become the main one in the East Slavic lands.

This feudal period was interrupted by the invasion of the Mongol hordes and the established yoke. In extremely difficult conditions of devastation and constant wars, Moscow became the main Russian city, which finally united Russia and made it independent. In the 15th - 16th centuries, this name became a thing of the past. It was replaced by the word "Russia", adopted in the Byzantine manner.

In modern historiography, there are several points of view on the question of when feudal Russia became a thing of the past. Most often, researchers believe that this happened in 1547, when Prince Ivan Vasilyevich took the title of tsar.

The emergence of Russia

The ancient united Russia, whose history began in the 9th century, appeared after the Novgorodian conquered Kiev in 882 and made this city its capital. During this era, the East Slavic tribes were divided into several tribal unions (glade, Dregovichi, Krivichi, etc.). Some of them were at enmity with each other. The inhabitants of the steppes also paid tribute to the hostile foreigners, the Khazars.

Unification of Russia

Northeastern or great Russia became the center of the struggle against the Mongols. This confrontation was led by the princes of small Moscow. At first, they were able to obtain the right to collect taxes from all Russian lands. Thus, part of the money was deposited in the Moscow treasury. When he gained enough strength, Dmitry Donskoy found himself in open confrontation with the Golden Horde khans. In 1380, his army defeated Mamai.

But even in spite of this success, for another century, Moscow rulers periodically paid tribute. Only after, in 1480, the yoke was finally thrown off. At the same time, under Ivan III, almost all Russian lands, including Novgorod, were united around Moscow. In 1547, his grandson Ivan the Terrible took the title of tsar, which was the end of the history of princely Russia and the beginning of a new tsarist Russia.

The development of world history has not been linear. At each of its stages there were events and periods that can be called “turning points”. They changed both geopolitics and people's worldview.

1. Neolithic revolution (10 thousand years BC - 2 thousand BC)

The term "Neolithic Revolution" was introduced in 1949 by the English archaeologist Gordon Child. Child called its main content the transition from an appropriating economy (hunting, gathering, fishing) to a producing economy (agriculture and cattle breeding). According to archeology, the domestication of animals and plants took place in different time independently in 7-8 regions. The earliest center of the Neolithic revolution is the Middle East, where domestication began no later than 10 thousand years BC.

2. Creation of the Mediterranean civilization (4 thousand BC)

The Mediterranean region was the home of the first civilizations. The emergence of the Sumerian civilization in Mesopotamia is attributed to the 4th millennium BC. NS. In the same 4th millennium BC. NS. The Egyptian pharaohs united the lands in the Nile Valley, and their civilization expanded rapidly through the Fertile Crescent to the eastern Mediterranean coast and beyond across the Levant. This made Mediterranean countries such as Egypt, Syria and Lebanon part of the cradle of civilization.

3. Great migration of peoples (IV-VII centuries)

The Great Migration of Nations became a turning point in history, which determined the transition from antiquity to the Middle Ages. Scientists still argue about the reasons for the Great Migration, but its consequences turned out to be global.

Numerous Germanic (Franks, Lombards, Saxons, Vandals, Goths) and Sarmatian (Alans) tribes moved to the territory of the weakening Roman Empire. The Slavs reached the Mediterranean and Baltic coasts, settled part of the Peloponnese and Asia Minor. The Turks reached Central Europe, the Arabs began campaigns of conquest, during which they conquered the entire Middle East to the Indus, North Africa and Spain.

4. The fall of the Roman Empire (V century)

Two powerful blows - in 410 the Visigoths and in 476 the Germans - crushed the seemingly eternal Roman Empire. This jeopardized the achievements of ancient European civilization. The crisis of Ancient Rome did not come suddenly, but for a long time ripened from within. The military and political decline of the empire, which began in the third century, gradually led to a weakening of the centralized power: it could no longer rule the sprawling and multinational empire. The ancient state was replaced by feudal Europe with its new organizing center - the "Holy Roman Empire". Europe for several centuries plunged into the abyss of turmoil and discord.

5. The split of the church (1054)

In 1054, the final split of the Christian Church into Eastern and Western took place. It was caused by the desire of Pope Leo IX to receive territories that were subordinate to Patriarch Michael Kerullarius. The result of the dispute was mutual church curses (anathemas) and public accusations of heresy. The western church was called the Roman Catholic (Roman world church), and the eastern - Orthodox. The path to the Schism was long (almost six centuries) and began with the so-called Akakiev schism in 484.

6. Little Ice Age (1312-1791)

The beginning of the Little Ice Age, which began in 1312, led to a whole ecological catastrophe. According to experts, during the period from 1315 to 1317 due to the Great Famine in Europe, almost a quarter of the population died out. Hunger was a constant companion of people throughout the Little Ice Age. Between 1371 and 1791, there were 111 hunger years in France alone. In 1601 alone, half a million inhabitants died of hunger in Russia due to poor harvests.

However, the Little Ice Age gave the world more than hunger and high mortality. He also became one of the reasons for the birth of capitalism. Coal became the energy source. For its production and transportation, workshops with hired workers began to be organized, which became a foreshadowing of the scientific and technological revolution and the birth of a new formation of social organization - capitalism. Some researchers (Margaret Anderson) also associate the settlement of America with the consequences of the Little Ice Age - people went for better life from "God-forsaken" Europe.

7. The era of the great geographical discoveries (XV-XVII centuries)

The era of the great geographical discoveries radically expanded the ecumene of mankind. In addition, it created an opportunity for the leading European powers to make the most of their overseas colonies, exploiting their human and natural resources and extracting fabulous profits from this. Some scholars also directly associate the triumph of capitalism with transatlantic trade, which gave rise to commercial and financial capital.

8. Reformation (XVI-XVII centuries)

The beginning of the Reformation is considered to be the speech of Martin Luther, Doctor of Theology of the University of Wittenberg: on October 31, 1517, he nailed his "95 Theses" to the doors of the Wittenberg Castle Church. In them, he opposed the existing abuses of the Catholic Church, in particular against the sale of indulgences.
The reformation process gave rise to many so-called Protestant wars, which seriously influenced the political structure of Europe. Historians consider the signing of the Peace of Westphalia in 1648 to be the end of the Reformation.

9. Great French Revolution (1789-1799)

The outbreak of the French Revolution in 1789 not only transformed France from a monarchy into a republic, but also summed up the collapse of the old European order. Its slogan: "Freedom, equality, brotherhood" for a long time excited the minds of revolutionaries. The French Revolution not only laid the foundations for the democratization of European society - it appeared as a cruel machine of senseless terror, which killed about 2 million people.

10. Napoleonic Wars (1799-1815)

The irrepressible imperial ambitions of Napoleon plunged Europe into chaos for 15 years. It all started with the invasion of Italy by French troops and ended with an inglorious defeat in Russia. Being a talented commander, Napoleon, nevertheless, did not disdain the threats and intrigues with which he subdued Spain and Holland, and also convinced Prussia to join the union, but then unceremoniously betrayed her interests.

During the Napoleonic Wars, the Kingdom of Italy, the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and a number of other small territorial entities appeared on the map. The final plans of the commander were the division of Europe between two emperors - himself and Alexander I, as well as the overthrow of Britain. But the inconsistent Napoleon himself changed his plans. The defeat in 1812 by Russia led to the collapse of Napoleonic plans in the rest of Europe. The Paris Peace Treaty (1814) returned France to its former 1792 borders.

11. Industrial Revolution (XVII-XIX centuries)

The Industrial Revolution in Europe and the United States made it possible for only 3-5 generations to pass from an agrarian society to an industrial one. The conventional beginning of this process is considered to be the invention of the steam engine in England in the second half of the 17th century. Over time, steam engines began to be used in production, and then as a driving mechanism for steam locomotives and steamers.
The main achievements of the era of the Industrial Revolution can be considered the mechanization of labor, the invention of the first conveyors, machine tools, and the telegraph. The emergence of railways was a huge step.

The second World War went on the territory of 40 countries, and 72 states took part in it. According to some estimates, 65 million people died in it. The war significantly weakened Europe's position in global politics and economy and led to the creation of a bipolar system in world geopolitics. Some countries during the war were able to achieve independence: Ethiopia, Iceland, Syria, Lebanon, Vietnam, Indonesia. In the countries of Eastern Europe, occupied by Soviet troops, socialist regimes were established. The Second World War also led to the creation of the UN.

14. Scientific and technological revolution (mid XX century)

The scientific and technological revolution, the onset of which is usually attributed to the middle of the last century, made it possible to automate production, entrusting the control and management of production processes to electronics. The role of information has significantly increased, which also allows us to talk about the information revolution. With the advent of rocket and space technology, human exploration of near-earth space began.

965 - Defeat of the Khazar Kaganate the army of the Kiev prince Svyatoslav Igorevich.

988 g - Baptism of Russia... Kievan Rus adopts Orthodox Christianity.

1223 - Battle of Kalka- the first battle between the Russians and the Mughals.

1240 - Battle of the Neva- military conflict between the Russians, led by the Novgorod prince Alexander and the Swedes.

1242 - Battle of Lake Peipsi- a battle between the Russians led by Alexander Nevsky and the knights of the Livonian Order. This battle went down in history as the "Battle on the Ice".

1380 - Battle of Kulikovo- a battle between the united army of the Russian principalities led by Dmitry Donskoy and the army of the Golden Horde led by Mamai.

1466 - 1472 - the journey of Afanasy Nikitin to Persia, India and Turkey.

1480 - Final deliverance of Russia from the Mongol-Tatar yoke.

1552 - Capture of Kazan by the Russian troops of Ivan the Terrible, the termination of the existence of the Kazan Khanate and its incorporation into Moscow Russia.

1556 - Accession of the Astrakhan Khanate to Moskva Rus.

1558 - 1583 - Livonian war... The war of the Russian kingdom against the Livonian order and the subsequent conflict of the Russian kingdom with the Grand Duchy of Lithuania, Poland and Sweden.

1581 (or 1582) - 1585 - Ermak's campaigns to Siberia and battles with the Tatars.

1589 - Establishment of the Patriarchate in Russia.

1604 - The invasion of False Dmitry I into Russia... The beginning of the Time of Troubles.

1606 - 1607 - Bolotnikov's uprising.

1612 - Liberation of Moscow from the Poles by the people's militia of Minin and Pozharsky End of the Time of Troubles.

1613 - The coming to power in Russia of the Romanov dynasty.

1654 - Pereyaslavl Rada made a decision on reunification of Ukraine with Russia.

1667 - Andrusov armistice between Russia and Poland. Left-bank Ukraine and Smolensk ceded to Russia.

1686 - "Eternal Peace" with Poland. Russia's entry into the anti-Turkish coalition.

1700 - 1721 - North War- hostilities between Russia and Sweden.

1783 - Accession of Crimea to the Russian Empire.

1803 - Decree on free farmers... The peasants received the right to buy themselves from the land.

1812 - Battle of borodino- a battle between the Russian army led by Kutuzov and the French troops under the command of Napoleon.

1814 - The capture of Paris by the Russian and allied forces.

1817 - 1864 - Caucasian war.

1825 - Decembrist revolt- an armed anti-government revolt by the officers of the Russian army.

1825 - built first railway in Russia.

1853 - 1856 - Crimean War... In this military conflict, the Russian Empire was opposed by England, France and the Ottoman Empire.

1861 - Abolition of serfdom in Russia.

1877 - 1878 - Russo-Turkish war

1914 - The beginning of the first world war and the entry of the Russian Empire into it.

1917 - Revolution in Russia(February and October). In February, after the fall of the monarchy, power passed to the Provisional Government. In October, the Bolsheviks came to power through a coup.

1918 - 1922 - Russian Civil War... It ended with the victory of the Reds (Bolsheviks) and the creation of the Soviet state.
* Individual outbreaks of the civil war began in the fall of 1917.

1941 - 1945 - War between the USSR and Germany... This confrontation took place within the framework of the Second World War.

1949 - Creation and testing of the first atomic bomb in USSR.

1961 - The first manned flight into space... It was Yuri Gagarin from the USSR.

1991 - The collapse of the USSR and the fall of socialism.

1993 - Adoption of a consituation by the Russian Federation.

2008 - Armed conflict between Russia and Georgia.

2014 - Return of Crimea to Russia.

1097 - The first congress of princes in Lyubech

1147 - The first mention of Moscow in chronicles

1188 - Approximate date of appearance of " Words about Igor's regiment »

1206 - Proclamation of Temuchin as the "Great Khan" of the Mongols and his adoption of the name of Genghis Khan

1237-1238 - Invasion of Khan Batu in North-Eastern Russia

1240 July 15 - Victory of the Novgorod prince Alexander Yaroslavich over the Swedish knights on the river. Neve

1327 - uprising against the Mongol-Tatars in Tver

1382 - Khan Tokhtamysh's campaign to Moscow

1471 - Hike of Ivan III to Novgorod. Battle on the river Sheloni

1480 - "Standing" on the river. Eel. End of the Tatar-Mongol yoke.

1510 - Accession of Pskov to Moscow

1565-1572 - Oprichnina

1589 - Establishment of the Patriarchate in Moscow

1606 - The uprising in Moscow and the assassination of False Dmitry I

1607 - The beginning of the intervention of False Dmitry II

1609-1618 - Open Polish-Swedish intervention

1611 September-October - Creation of the militia under the leadership of Minin and Pozharsky in Nizhny Novgorod

1648 - The uprising in Moscow - " Salt riot »

1649 - "Cathedral Code" of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich

1649-1652 - Hikes of Erofei Khabarov to the Daurian land along the Amur

1652 - Consecration of Nikon to the patriarch

1670-1671 - Peasant War led by S. Razina

1682 - Abolition of parochialism

1695-1696 - The Azov campaigns of Peter I

1812 - Invasion of Napoleon's "Great Army" into Russia. Patriotic War

1814 September 19 -1815 May 28 - Congress of Vienna

1839-1843 - Monetary reform of Count E. f. Kankrina

1865 - Military and judicial reform

1874 spring - The first mass "going to the people" of the revolutionary populists

1875 April 25 - Treaty of St. Petersburg between Russia and Japan (on South Sakhalin and the Kuril Islands)

1881 March 1 - Murder of Alexander II by the revolutionary populists

1906 November 9 - The beginning of the agrarian reforms P.A. Stolypin

1930 - The beginning of complete collectivization

1939 November 30 - 1940 March 12 - Soviet-Finnish war

1941 June 22 - The attack of Nazi Germany and its allies on the USSR. The beginning of the Great Patriotic War

1945 May 8 - Act of unconditional surrender of Germany. USSR victory in the Great Patriotic War

1975 July 30 - August 1 - Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe (Helsinki). Signing of the Final Act by 33 European countries, USA and Canada

1990 May 1-June 12 - Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR. Declaration on State Sovereignty of Russia

1991 December 8 - The signing in Minsk by the leaders of Russia, Ukraine and Belarus of the agreement on the "Commonwealth of Independent States" and the dissolution of the USSR