Remember: What do you know the methods for determining distances between two objects?

Keywords:distance, foot length, rangefinder, painter.

1. Methods for measuring distances.The traveled path in the campaign or distance between two far objects to measured by a tape measure or a meter long. In this case, the distance is more convenient to measure steps. To do this, you need to know the average length of your step. Recall that in order to determine the average step length, you need to measure the distance with a roulette, for example, 50 m. Then the usual step is to pass this distance by counting the number of steps. Suppose you passed the distance of 50 meters and made 70 steps. Consequently, the average length of your step is approximately 71 cm (5,000 cm: 70 \u003d 71 cm)

When measuring large distances, steps are more convenient to be considered pairs (for example, only under the left foot).

Less exactly the distance can be defined in time spent on walking. So, if 1km you go in 15 minutes, then in 1 hour they will pass 4 km. You can determine the distance to the eye.

Sometimes for measuring distances use devices that are called rangefinders. The rangefinder is easy to make (Fig.16).

To use the rangefinder to determine the distance to the object, it must be kept on an elongated hand in front of the eyes and, moving to the right or left, to ensure that the whole figure of a person is visible through a slot. At the same time, the base of the object should be at the bottom of the slot. It will be a digit that corresponds to the distance from the observer to the object. Figure shows that the distance in this example is 80 m.

Fig.16. The simplest rangefinder (the drawing is performed in full size). List the drawing on the tight cardboard sheet and cut out the cut.

2. Types of image area.To make a decision where to build new plants, residential buildings, spend the road to plan the placement of crops, pastures, you need to have a terrain. A small area of \u200b\u200bthe area can be drawn or photographed (Fig. 17).

Fig. 17. The survey.

But there are other images of the earth's surface, for which you can clearly consider various objects (forests, rivers, villages, fields, etc.), learn their size and mutual location. These are aerial photographs (Fig. 18) and location plans (Fig. 19).

Fig. 18. Aerial view of the area. What objects can you distinguish on the aerial view of the area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain.?

Fig. 19. Terrain plan. What does he differ from the aerial photograph?

Aerial photographs are taken by photographing the surface of the Earth from the aircraft.

1. How to determine the distance from time spent? 2. What is the simplest device can be used to determine the distance? 3. What types of area do you know?

& 7. Terrain Plan

In school when studying geography and in the future you will contact the map to find out where there are different geographical objects, which are their properties. To do this, get acquainted first with the fact that such a location plan and a geographic map, as people depict the surface of the earth. To be able to use the plan is very important. So, for example, in an unfamiliar city, having a plan, you can find the right street, theater, museum, monuments and other objects. Builders, using the area of \u200b\u200bthe area, decide where it is better to pave a new way, to build settlements in newly developed areas.

Remember: What is called azimuth? How to determine azimuth on the ground? How to determine the distance spent on time spent?

Keywords: drawing, area plan, conditional signs.

1. Terrain plan. Plans for terrain, like aerial photographs, depict terrain from above. But between the photo, drawing, aerial view and the plan of the area there are differences.

Figure and photo of the area from the plan is characterized in that the figure shows the type of terrain on the side, and on the plan - type of terrain from above.

In the photo, all items are depicted in natural form, and on the plan is depicted using conventional signs.

The area can be depicted using the drawing on which the distance will be shown on the scale.

In this way, p l a n e s t n o s t and- This is a drawing small plot The earth's surface made on a certain scale and using conditional signs. Component Plan - symbol and scale.

2. Signs. Objects and objects on the plan of the area are depicted using conventional signs (Fig. 20).

Fig. 20. Conditional plane plans. Are the conditional signs on the objects that they depict?

Many conditional signs depict objects that are on the ground. Significant area. These are fields, forests, swamps, thickets of shrubs. The border between them on the plans of the area is shown by small dots.

Small rivers and streams, roads, narrow streets are depicted by conditional signs in the form of lines. At their length, you can find out the length of the depicted river or the road. When applied to the conditional signs, it is necessary to adhere to certain rules.

Fig.21. Incorrect (a) and correct (b) image of conditional signs on the plan.

* The conventional signs were already on the ancient plans. These were figurines of animals and people, drawings of houses and fortress walls. Signs from plans were different. On modern plans, conditional signs do not change.

Development of conditional signs is a challenge. Well-designed conditional signs help better read the plan and map, facilitate their drawing. Signs must be simple and visual.

1. What is the location of the area? 2. Find on the plan of the area (Figure 19.) Meadow, Mixed Forest, thickets of shrubs, ravines and other objects of terrain.

3. Using Fig. 21, determine which errors are allowed on the left plan in the image of the conventional signs of meadows, swamps, cut down, separate wood.

Practical work.

Build a table in which you reflect the differences in the image of the area in the picture, photos, aerial photography.

& 8. The scale of land plans.

Remember: How are object objects designate? What is azimuth?

Keywords: scale, numerical scale, nailed scale, linear scale, orientation by area plan.

1. Types of scale.Suppose you need to portray the distance from your school to the house. You already know that the distance from school to your home is 910 m. Show genuine size This distance on paper is impossible, so it is necessary to draw it on the scale. M and u t a b about m They call a fraction that has a numerator unit, and the denominator is a number indicating how many times the distance on the plan is less than on the ground. We agree that we will depict all distances on paper 10,000 times less than in reality, i.e. On the scale of 1: 10,000 (one ten thousand). This fraction can be written and so 1/10,000. This means that 1 cm on paper we will correspond to 10,000 cm (or 100 m) on the ground. Then the distance from school to your home will be 9 cm 1 mm.

This type of scale is called h and s l e n n y m

Numerically learned on how many times all distances are reduced on the plan. The greater the number in the denomoter denoter, the greater the decrease. Now you can portray the distance from your home to school.

The same scale can be written in words "1 centimeter - 100m". This scale is called and m e n o n n y m. It is convenient because of the line-measured line you can immediately recognize the distance on the ground.

Linear scale is placed on the plans.

L and n e n y y m and with w t a b - This is a straight line, divided into equal parts (usually centimeters). When drawing a linear scale, zero put, retreating 1 cm from the left end of the segment, and the first centimeter is divided into smaller parts (2 mm) (Fig. 22).

Fig. 22. Designation of scale on the area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain and on the map.

A linear scale is used to determine the distances according to the plan using a circular meter (see Fig. 23).

Fig. 23. The position of the measuring circulator when measuring distances on the plan with a linear scale.

2. Determination of azimuth by area plan. On plans, the direction to the north is often denoted by the arrow. If the arrow is not depicted, it is believed that the upper edge of the plan is the North, the lower - the southern, right - oriental and left - Western. Suppose that you need to go from the ferry on the river blue to the dam on the River Malinovka (Fig. 24)

Fig. 24. Determination of azimuth according to plan with the help of transport.

To do this, you should know which azimuth must be moved from the ferry to come to the dam. This azimuth can be determined according to the plan using the transport (Fig.24). What azimuth is it? On the ground you find this azimuth with the help of a compass and in this azimuth go in the right direction.

1. What is the scale? 2. What types of scales are distinguished? 3. What shows the denominator of a numerical scale? 4. When is it more convenient to use a named scale?

Practical work.

Position the distance of 300 meters on the drawing: 1 cm - 100 m, 1 cm - 30 m. Which scale is larger?

Position the distance in the drawing of 500 m. Scale choose yourself.

Read the scales of 1:20 000 and 1: 300,000. How many times are the distance in the first and in the second case? Translate these numerical scales to named. Express them linear scales.

* The student depicted in the drawing a distance of 1 km from a length of 10 cm. Determine which scale it has chosen to perform the task

* The student depicted a distance of 500 m in the drawing on a scale of 1 cm - 50 m. What is the distance in the drawing?

** A student from point A to point B passed on azimuth 360 degrees 100 m (conventionally reflect in the notebook this distance on a scale of 1: 1000). From item B to the point in it passed the same distance in azimuth 90 degrees. From the item at the same distance he passed on azimuth 180 degrees. Distribute the path of the student in the notebook and determine what distance and in which azimuth he remains to pass to paragraph A.

Competition of experts . You found a plan. A piece of sheet where the scale is not preserved. How to determine the scale of this plan?

Section 4. Measurements on the terrain and target designation

§ 1.4.1. Angle measures and a thousandth formula

Degree. The main unit is degree (1/90 direct corner); 1 ° \u003d 60 "; 1" \u003d 60 ".

Radian measure. The main unit of radians is a central angle, tightened by an arc equal to the radius. 1 radian is approximately 57 °, or, approximately 10 big divisions Cor meter (see Junis).

Sea measure. The main unit is rumbling, equal to 1/32 of the circumference part (10 ° 1/4).

Clock measure. The main unit is an angular hour (1/6 of a direct angle, 15 °); denotes letter h.However,: 1 H \u003d 60 m, 1 m \u003d 60 s ( m. - minutes, s. - Seconds).

Artillery measure. From the course of geometry it is known that the circumference length is 2πr, or 6,28r (R - the circle radius). If the circumference is divided into 6000 equal parts, then each such part will be approximately one thousandth circumference length (6.28R / 6000 \u003d R / 955 ≈ R / 1000). One such part of the circumference length is called thousands (or delivery of Uglometer ) And is the main unit of artillery measure. The thousandth is widely used in artillery dimensions, since it makes it easy to move from angular units to linear units and back: the length of the arc corresponding to the division of the grid, at all distances is equal to one thousandth radius length equal to the shooting range (Fig. 4.1).

The formula showing the relationship of the range to the target, height (length) of the target and its angular value is called formula thousandth and applied not only in artillery, but also in military topography:

where D. - distance to the subject, m; IN - linear size of the subject (length, height or width), m; W. - the corner value of the subject in thousands. Memorizing the formula thousandth contribute to such figurative expressions as: " Revealed wind, thousand fell ", or: " Milestone with a height of 1 m, removed from the observer by 1 km, is visible at an angle of 1 thousand ».

It should be borne in mind that the formula of thousands is applicable with not too large angles - the conditional boundary of the applicability of the formula is the angle of 300 thousand (18?).

The angles expressed in thousands are recorded through a hyphen and read separately: first hundreds, and then tens and units; In the absence of hundreds or dozens, zero is written and read. For example: 1705 thousands are recorded " 17-05 "Read -" seventeen zero five "; 130 thousands are recorded " 1-30 "Read -" one thirty "; 100 thousands are recorded " 1-00 "Read -" one zero "; One thousandth is written " 0-01 ", Read -" zero zero one ».

The divisions of the Corrometer recorded before the hyphen are sometimes called large divisions of the Corometry, and recorded after hyphen - small; One large division of the talent is 100 small divisions.

Delivery of the Cor meter in a degree measure and back can be translated by using the following ratios:

1-00 \u003d 6 °; 0-01 \u003d 3.6 "\u003d 216"; 0 ° \u003d 0-00; 10 "≈ 0-03; 1 ° ≈ 0-17; 360 ° \u003d 60-00.

The unit of measurement of angles, similar to the thousandth, exists in the Armed Forces of NATO countries. It is called there mil. (Reduction from Milliradian), but is defined as 1/6400 circumference. In the Army of Sweden, which is not included in NATO, adopted the most accurate definition in the 1/6300 circle. However, divider 6000, adopted in the Soviet, Russian and Finnish armies, is better suited for an oral account, as it is divided without a 2, 3, 4, 5, 5, 6, 8, 10, 40, 12, 15, 20, 30, 40 , 50, 60, 100, 150, 200, 250, 300, 400, 500, etc. Up to 3000, which allows you to quickly translate into thousands of corners, obtained by a rough measurement on the terrain by remedies.

§ 1.4.2. Measurement of angles, distances (range), determination of the height of objects

Fig. 4.2. Angle values \u200b\u200bbetween fingers, stretched by 60 cm from the eye

Measuring the angles in thousandth can be made in various ways: eye viawatch clock, compass, artillery busus, binoculars, sniper sight, ruler, etc.

Eye-eating angle It consists in comparison of the measured angle with the known one. Corners of a certain amount can be obtained in the following ways. The straight angle is obtained between the direction of the hands, one of which is stretched along the shoulders, and the other is right in front of you. From the angle compiled by such a reception, one part of it can be postponed, having in mind that 1/2 part corresponds to the angle of 7-50 (45 °), 1/3 - angle 5-00 (30 °), etc. The angle of 2-50 (15 °) is obtained by sighting through a large and index fingers placed at an angle of 90 ° and removed by 60 cm from the eye, and the angle of 1-00 (6 °) corresponds to the corner of sight on three closed fingers: index, medium and Unnamed (Fig. 4.2).

Determination of the corner of the clock cloudy. The clock is kept horizontally and turn them so that the barcode corresponding to 12 o'clock on the dial is combined with the direction of the left side of the angle. Without changing the position of the clock, notice the intersection of the direction of the right side of the angle with the dial and count the number of minutes. This will be the magnitude of the angle in large divisions of the negotiation. For example, the countdown of 25 minutes corresponds to 25-00.

Determining the corner by the compass. The scholarships of the compass are pre-combined with the initial stroke of the limb, and then visited in the direction of the left side of the measured angle and, without changing the position of the compass, against the direction of the right side of the angle, they remove the limb countdown. This will be the value of the measured angle or its addition to 360 ° (60-00) if the signatures on the limb are coming against the clockwise progress.

Fig. 4.3. Compass

The magnitude of the corner by the compass can be determined more accurately, measuring the azimuths of the directions of the angle. The difference of azimuth of the right and left sides of the angle will correspond to the magnitude of the angle. If the difference is negative, then it is necessary to add 360 ° (60-00). The average error of the angle determination in this method is 3-4 °.

Determination of the angle of Artillery Bussoly Pub-2A (Bususol - instrument for topographic binding and artillery fire management, representing a compass compass compass with a circle circle and optical device, Fig.4.3).

To measure the horizontal angle, the Bususol is installed above the locality, remove the level bubble on the middle and the pipe consistently suggest on the right, then to the left object, exactly combining the vertical thread of the grid, with a point of the observed item.

With each point, it takes off the countdown on the Boussol Ring and the drum. Then the second reception of measurements are performed, for which the busus is rotated to an arbitrary angle and repeat the actions. In both receptions, the value of the angle is obtained as a difference of samples: countdown on the right subject minus countdown on the left object. For the final result, the average value is taken.

When measuring the angles, the Bussoli, each countdown is folded from the countdown of large divisions of the A boussol ring according to the sign indicator marked with the letter B, and small divisions of the sauna drum indicated by the same letter. An example of samples in Fig. 4.4 in the Austol Ring - 7-00, according to the BUSSOLOGY drum - 0-12; Full countdown - 7-12.

Fig. 4.4. The logging device used to measure horizontal angles:
1 - A boussol ring;
2 - Bustor

Using a ruler . If the ruler is to keep 50 cm from the eye, then the division of 1 mm will correspond to 0-02. When removing the line from the eye by 60 cm 1 mm, it corresponds to 6 ", and 1 cm - 1 °. To measure the angle in thousandths, the ruler is kept at a distance of 50 cm from the eye and calculate the number of millimeters between the objects indicating the directions of the angle of the angle. The resulting number They are multiplied by 0-02 and obtain the magnitude of the angle of thousands (Fig. 4.5). To measure the angle in degrees, the procedure for the action is the same, only the line must be kept at a distance of 60 cm from the eyes.

Fig. 4.5. The angle measurement by a ruler removed by 50 cm from the eye of the observer

The accuracy of measurement of angles using a ruler depends on the ability to carry out the ruler exactly by 50 or 60 cm from the eyes. In this regard, you can recommend the following: the shoelace is tied to the artillery compass, the lace is tied to the compass line-hanged on the neck and referred to the level of the observer's eye, it turned out from it exactly 50 cm.

Example: Knowing that the average distance between the links of the communication line shown in Fig.1.4.5 is 55 m, calculate the distance to them by the formula thousandth: d \u003d 55 X.1000/68 \u003d 809 m (Linear dimensions of some items are shown in Table 4.1) .

Table 4.1.

Measurement of corner binoculars . The extreme bar code in the field of view of binoculars is combined with the subject located in the direction of one of the sides of the angle, and, without changing the position of binoculars, calculate the number of divisions to the item located in the direction of the other side of the angle (Fig. 4.6). The resulting number is multiplied by the price of the division of the scale (usually 0-05). If the binoculars scale does not capture the corner completely, then it is measured in parts. The average error measuring the angle of binoculars is 0-10.

Example (Fig. 4.6): Angle amount of the American tank "Abrams", determined on the binoculars scale, was 0-38, given that the width of the tank is 3.7 m, the distance to it, calculated by the formula, thousandth, d \u003d 3.7 h.1000/38 ≈ 97 m.

Measurement of an angle sniper sight PSO-1 . On the grid, the sight was applied (Fig. 4.7): the scale of lateral amendments (1); main (top) kit for aiming during shooting up to 1000 m (2); additional squares (below the side amendment scale for vertical line) for aiming when shooting at 1100, 1200 and 1300 m (3); A rangeflock scale in the form of a solid horizontal and dotted lines curve (4).

The side amendment scale is indicated from below (left and right on the square) number 10, which corresponds to ten thousandths (0-10). The distance between the two vertical dashes of the scale corresponds to one thousandth (0-01). The height of the coal and the long side of the side amendment scale corresponds to the two thousandth (0-02). The rangefinder scale is calculated for the height of the target of 1.7 m ( medium height man). This target height is indicated below the horizontal line. Above the upper dotted line caused a division scale, the distance between which corresponds to the distance to the target 100 m. The number of the scale 2, 4, 6, 8, 10 correspond to distances 200, 400, 600, 800, 1000 m. Determine the range to the target with A sight can be traded on a rangefinder (Fig. 4.8), as well as on the scale of lateral amendments (see algorithm for measuring corners with binoculars).

Knowing the distance to the subject in meters and its angular value in the thousandth can be calculated its height by the formula B \u003d d x / 1000obtained from the thousandth formula. Example: the distance to the tower is 100 m, and its angular value from the base to the top 2-20, respectively, the height of the tower B \u003d 100 X.220/1000 \u003d 22 m.

Eye virology definition of distances It is made on signs of visibility (degree of differentiation) of individual items and purposes (Table 4.2).

Table 4.2.

The distance (range) of the eye can be determined by comparison with another, a predetermined distance (n-p, with a distance to the guideline) or 100, 200, 500 m.

The accuracy of the eye definition of distances is significantly affected by the observation conditions:

• brightly lit objects seem closerly illuminated;
• on cloudy days, rain, twilight, fog all observed items seem further than on sunny days;
• large items seem closer small ones at the same distance;
• items bright coloring (white, yellow, orange, red) seem closer dark (black, brown, blue);
• in the mountains, as well as when observed through water space, it seems closer than in reality;
• when observing lying items seem closer than when observing standing;
• when observed from the bottom up, the objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
• when observing at night, the glowing objects seem closer, and the darkened - further than in reality.

The eye-defined distance can be specified by the following techniques:

• the distance is mentally divided into several equal segments (parts), then it is possible to more accurately determine the value of one segment and by multiplying the exemplary value is obtained;
• the distance is rated by several observers, and the final result takes the average value.

Extremely distance to 1 km with sufficient experience can be determined with an average error of about 10-20% of the range. When determining the large distances, the error can reach up to 30-50%.

Defining a range by audio hearing It is used in poor visibility conditions, mostly at night. Approximate ranges of audibility of individual sounds at normal hearing and favorable weather conditions are shown in Table 4.3.

Table 4.3.

The accuracy of determining distances by hearing sounds is low. It depends on the experience of the observer, the severity and travelery of its hearing and the ability to take into account the direction and strength of the wind, the temperature and humidity of the air, the nature of the relief of the relief, the presence of shielding surfaces reflecting the sound, and other factors affecting the spread of sound waves.

Determination of a range of sound and outbreak (shot, explosion) . Determine from the moment of flash until the sound perception and calculate the range of formula:

D \u003d 330 · t ,

where D. - distance to the place of the outbreak, m; t. - Time from the moment of flash until the sound perception, p. At the same time, the average speed of sound propagation is taken equal to 330 m / s ( Example: The sound was heard 10 seconds after the outbreak, respectively, the distance to the explosion place is 3300 m).

Defining a range with the help of flying . Determination of the range to the target, forming the appropriate skill, can be carried out with the help of flies and the slot of the action of AK. It must be borne in mind that the flies fully covers the target number 6 ( target width 50 cm) at a distance of 100 m; The target fits in half the width of the flies of 200 m; The target fits in a quarter of the flush width at a distance of 300 m (Fig. 4.9).

Fig. 4.9. Defining a range with the help of flying

Definition of range by Promder Steps . When measuring distances, steps are considered pairs. A couple of steps can be taken on average for 1.5 m. For more accurate calculations, the length of the pair of steps is determined from the measurement of the line with the lines of at least 200 m, the length of which is known from more accurate measurements. With an equal, well-appointed step, the measurement error does not exceed 5% of the distance traveled.

Determination of the width of the river (ravine and other obstacles) by building an equally rectangular triangle (Fig. 4.10).

Determination of the width of the river by the construction of an inaccessible rectangular triangle

At the river (obstacles) choose a point BUT so that any landmark is visible on her opposite side IN And, moreover, it would be possible to measure the line along the river. At point BUT restore perpendicular AC to line AU and in this direction, the distance (cord, steps, etc.) is measured to the point FROM in which the angle QA it will be 45 °. In this case, distance AC will fit the width of obstacles AU . Point FROM find by approaching, measuring several times angle QA anything affordable way (Compass, with the help of hours or eye).

Determination of the height of the subject by its shadow . The object is installed in the vertical position of the milestone (pole, shovel, etc.), the height of which is known. Then measure the length of the shadow from milestones and from the subject. The height of the subject is calculated by the formula

h \u003d d 1 · h 1 / d,

where h. - the height of the subject, m; d 1. - the height of the shadow of milestones, m; h 1. - Height of milestones, m; d. - Shadow length from the subject, m. Example: the length of the shadow of the tree is 42 m, and from the pole height 2 m - 3 m, respectively, the height of the tree H \u003d 42 · 2/3 \u003d 28 m.

§ 1.4.3. Definition of rolling rods

Horizontal sight and free steps . Locating at the bottom of the skate at the point BUT(Fig.4.11- but), set horizontally at the level of the eye ruler, sight along it and notice on the skate point IN.Then pairs steps measure distance AUand determine the steepness of the scope by the formula:

α \u003d 60 / n,

where α - steepness of the skate, hail; n. - Number of steam steps. This method Applicable with a row of a row to 20-25 °; The accuracy of determination is 2-3 °.

Comparing the height of the skate with its run . Become the side of the skate and holding in front of one eye level horizontally, edge folders and vertically pencil, as shown in Fig.4.11- b., determine the eye or by measuring the number indicating how many times the pencil is extended MN. in short edges folders Ohm. Then 60 is divided into the resulting number and as a result, they determine the steepness of the skate in degrees.

For greater accuracy of determining the ratio of the height of the skate and its embezzlement, it is recommended to measure the length of the rib folder, and instead of the pencil, use a line with divisions. The method is applicable with a slope of no more than 25-30 °; The average error of determining the steepness of the skate is 3-4 °.

Definition of steepness of the skate:
a - horizontal visiting and surrogue steps;
b - comparing the heights of the skate

Example: The height of the extended part of the pencil is 10 cm, the length of the edge of the 30 cm folder; The ratio of the attachment and height of the skate is 3 (30:10); The steepness of the skate will be 20 ° (60: 3).

With the help of a plumb and officer ruler . We prepare a plumb (thread with a small ship) and apply it to the officer line, holding the thread with a finger at the transport center. The line is installed at the level of the eye so that its edge is directed along the line of the skate. In this position of the line, the angle between the stroke 90 ° and the thread is determined on the transport scale. This angle is equal to the rush of the skate. The average error of measuring the steepness of the skate in this method is 2-3 °.

§ 1.4.4. Linear measures

• Arshin \u003d 0.7112 m
• Top \u003d 500 Sedes \u003d 1,0668 km
• Inch \u003d 2.54 cm
• Cables \u003d 0.1 sea miles \u003d 185.3 m
• Kilometer \u003d 1000 m
• Line \u003d 0.1 inches \u003d 10 points \u003d 2.54 mm
• Lie ( France) \u003d 4.44 km
• Meter \u003d 100 cm \u003d 1000 mm \u003d 3,2809 feet
• Mile Sea ( United States, England, Canada) \u003d 10 cable \u003d 1852 m
• Mile Statute ( United States, England, Canada) \u003d 1,609 km
• Syazhen \u003d 3 ARSHIN \u003d 48 vertices \u003d 7 feet \u003d 84 inches \u003d 2,1336 m
• Foot \u003d 12 inches \u003d 30.48 cm
• Yard \u003d 3 feet \u003d 0.9144 m

§ 1.4.5. Carebook on the map and on the ground

The target design is a brief, understandable and fairly accurate indication of the location of the goals and various items on the map and directly on the ground.

Target designation (indication of points) on the map It is made along the squares of the coordinate (kilometer) or geographic grid, from the guideline, rectangular or geographic coordinates.

Cabination on the squares of the coordinate (kilometer) grid

Cabination on the squares of the coordinate grid (Fig. 4.12 but). The square in which the object is located, indicate the signatures of kilometer lines. First the digitization of the lower horizontal line of the square is given, and then the left vertical line. In a written document, the square indicate in parentheses after the name object, for example, high. 206.3 (4698). With an oral report, first indicate the square, and then the name of the object: "Square forty six ninety eight, the height of two hundred six and three"

To clarify the location of the object, the square is mentally divided into 9 parts, which are denoted by figures, as shown in Fig. 4.12 b.The figure specifizing the position of the object inside the square is added to the designation of the square, for example, the observation item (46006).

In some cases, the location of the object in square is specified by parts indicated by letters, for example, shed (4498A) Figure 4.12 in.

On the map covering the area with a length from the south to the north or from east to west more than 100 km, digitizing kilometer lines in two-digit numbers may repeat. To eliminate uncertainty in the position of the object, the square should be denoted by four, but six digits (three-digit number of abscissa and three-digit number of ordinate), for example, location of flags (844300)figure 4.12 g.

Target designation from the landmark . In this case, the method of targeting the object is first called the object, then the distance and direction to it from a good noticeable reference point and the square in which the landmark is located, for example command Point - 2 km south of flags (4400)figure 4.12 d.

Camery on the squares of the geographic grid . The method applies when on the maps there is no coordinate (kilometer) mesh. In this case, the squares (more precisely, the trapezoids) of the geographic grid are denoted by geographic coordinates. At the beginning indicate the latitude of the lower side of the square, in which the item is located, and then the longitude of the left side of the square, for example (Fig.4.13- but): « Erino (21 ° 20 ", 80 ° 00")" Squares of geographic grid can be denoted by digitizing the nearest yields of kilometer lines, if they are shown on the sides of the map frame, for example (Fig.4.13- b.): « Dreams (6412)».

Camery on the squares of the geographic grid

Cabination of rectangular coordinates - the most accurate way; It is used to indicate the location of point purposes. The goal is denoted by complete or abbreviated coordinates.

Designation of geographic coordinates It is applied relatively rarely - when using maps without kilometer grids to accurately specify the location of individual remote objects. The object is denoted by geographic coordinates: latter and longitude.

Target designation Perform in various ways: from the reference point, from the direction of movement, along the azimuth sign, etc. The method of targeting is chosen by consulting with a specific environment, so that it ensures the fastest finding of the goal.

From landmark . On the battlefield, good notable benchmarks are chosen in advance and assign numbers or conditional names. The benchmarks are numbered to right and on the turn from themselves towards the opponent. Location, view, number (name) of each reference point must be well known to the outstanding and receiving target designation. When specifying the goal, the nearest landmark is called the angle between the guideline and the purpose of thousandth and removal in meters from the reference point or position: " The state is the second, right thirty, below one hundred - in the bushes machine gun».

Mustotious targets indicate consistently - first they call a well-visible subject, and then from this subject purpose: " The fourth landmark, right twenty - angle of arable land, further two hundred - bush, left - tank in the trench».

With visual aerial intelligence, the target point is indicated in meters from the side of the horizon: " Landmark Twelfth, South 200, East 300 - Six-sighted battery».

From the direction of movement . Indicate the distance in meters at first in the direction of movement, and then from the direction of movement to the target: " Right 500, Right 200 - BM PTURS».

Trassing bullets (shells) and signal missiles . To specify the goals in this method, the guidelines, order and length of queues (color of missiles), and for receiving goals, assign an observer with a task to observe the specified area and report on the appearance of signals.

§ 1.4.6. Application for the goals and other objects

Approximately. The oriented map recognize the landmarks or contour points coming to object; It is estimated to estimate the distances and directions from them to the object and, by observing their relations, they are applied to the map the point corresponding to the location of the object. The method applies if there is an object near the object of local items depicted on the map.

In direction and distance. At the starting point, the card is carefully oriented and with the help of the ruler, the direction to the object is read. Then, by defining the distance to the object, lay it on the battered direction on the map scale and receive the position of the object on the map. If it is impossible to graphically solve the problem, the magnetic azimuth is measured on the object and translate it into the directory angle, according to which the direction on the map is stated, and then the distance to the object is deposited on this direction. The accuracy of application to the object by this method depends on errors to determine the distance to the object and the pairing direction to it.

Application on the map of the object direct serif

Direct serif. At the starting point BUT(Fig.4.14) Carefully oriented the card, they see the object to the defined object and read the direction. Similar actions are repeated at the starting point. IN.The intersection point of two directions will determine the position of the object FROMon the map.

In conditions that make it difficult to work with the card, magnetic azimuths are measured at the starting points, and then the azimuths are transferred to the directory angles and the directions on the map are stuck.

This method is applied if the specified object is visible from two source points available for observation. The average position error on the object map applied by direct serif relative to the starting points is 7-10% of the middle range to the object, provided that the direction of crossing the direction of the directions (the angle of serif) is in the range of 30-150 °. In the corners of the serfs less than 30? and more than 150 ° object position error on the map will be much larger. The accuracy of the application of the object can be somewhat increased by serif it from three points. In this case, with the intersection of three directions, a triangle is usually formed, the central point of which is taken for the position of the object on the map.

Stroke. The method applies in cases where the object is not visible from a single contour (source) point, for example in the forest. At the starting point, located may be closer to the object-defined object, orient the card and, by nameing the most convenient path to the object, stick the direction at any intermediate point. In this direction, the corresponding distance is laid and the position of the intermediate point on the map is determined. With the resulting point with the same techniques, the position on the second intermediate point map is determined and the following actions are determined by all subsequent stroke points to the object.

In the conditions that exclude work with the map on the ground, the azimuths and lengths of all stroke lines are first measured, and simultaneously draw the stroke diagram. Then, in suitable conditions, according to these data, converting magnetic azimuths to the directive angles, they define the map and determine the position of the object.

Application on the map of the object with a compass stroke

When a goal is found in the forest or in other conditions that make it difficult to determine their location, the course is paved in reverse order (Fig. 4.15). Initially from the observation point BUTdetermine the azimuth and distance to the target C.and then from the point BUTpave a move to the point D.which can be accurately identified on the map. In this case, the azimuths of the stroke lines are transferred to the opposite, reverse azimuths - to the directive angles and build a stroke from the hard point on the map.

The average error of applying an object on a map of this method in determining the azimuth compass, and the tracks with steps are approximately 5% of the stroke length. An example of the integrated use of the above methods of application for a card of purposes may be an episode of the actions of the interlocks - actions scheme is shown in Fig. 4.16.

Scheme of actions of the intermarpter

1 - location abkhaz militia; 2 - posts of Georgian formations; 3 - combat shopping of Georgian formations; 4 - combat abkhaz militia; 5 - Detalization of the group at the point of removal of coordinates; 6 - interlocks; 7 - Technology of Georgian formations; 8 - location georgian formations

Using the predestal twilight, the interlock was returned after the task of the task of the territory occupied by the Abkhaz militia. Suddenly, when approaching the advanced posts of Georgian formations, the group came across the fighting opponent.

Focusing for fighting security, the team commander decided to make it possible to determine this site. To this end, a discharge from the task was allocated to examine the area adjacent to the road on Batumi.

Performing a task, the discharge discovered the cluster of the live strength and equipment of the enemy on the slope above the road. Sergeant (senior intelligence), taking into account the complexity of determining the coordinates of the opponent's location in the current conditions (the terrain of the resulting and crumpled and the thick forest, poor visibility in predestrous twilight), determined the coordinates according to the following scheme. Being at a distance of 80-90 m from the opponent's location, and determining that from the center of the location to directly eating no more than 50-70 m, the sergeant with a ward rose upside down (approximate azimuth - 0 °), bringing its location up to 100 m from directly efforted. Then, taking azimuth so that the directive angle when applied to the map was equal to 0 °, began lifting the slope on the ridge crest, counting the pairs of steps - when leaving the crest, it turned out that the watch passed about 300 m. Given the steepness of the skate, determined the direct distance to the center of the opponent ( fig. 4.16, image in a circle): 250 + 100 + 70 \u003d 420 m.

On the ridge of Schog at the end of the azimuth passed, a tree was chosen, rising to which, Sergeant tried to determine the point of his standing. To the north-west of this point on the background of the brightening predestinous sky, the marked tower on one of the vertices of the ridge was clearly designed.

Understanding that one of this reference point is not enough to determine the point of its standing, the sergeant began to look for additional guidelines marked on the map, and found a landmark in the form of a car bridge to the southwest. Taking the azimuth on the tower, translated it into the directions of the corner, and, reappearing 180 °, paved it until the intersection with the ridge of the spray, thereby receiving the fairly accurate coordinates of his standing point. It remained to pave a directing angle of 180 ° to the arrangement of the enemy and postpone the calculated distance - 420 m.

By joining the group, Sergeant, reported to the commander the calculated goal coordinates. The commander, evaluating the accuracy of the information and the correctness of the calculations, decided to guide the fire of his artillery. After the first target shot, the calculation of a 120-mm mortar, which was at the disposal of the Abkhaz militia, gave a series of 6 minutes, clearly struck the arrangement of the enemy.

A person who is in any area may need the ability to measure distances to certain objects, as well as determining the width and height of these objects. Such measurements are better and more and more accurate with the use of special Tools (Laser rangefinders, rangefinder scales optical instruments, etc.), but those may not always be at hand. Therefore, in this situation, the knowledge of "Dedovsky" will come to the revenue, tested times, methods. These include:

• determination of the distance to the eye
• angle value
• determination of distances with a ruler and handicraft items
• sound

Determination of the distance to the eye

This method is the easiest and rapid. Determining here is the ability to mentally delay equal segments in 50, 100, 500 and 1000 m. These sections of the distance must be explored and well secured in visual memory. At the same time, the following features should be taken into account:

• on the level terrain and the water space, there seems less than they actually
• hoping and ravines reduce the visible distance,
• larger items seem closer to small linas on them,
• all items seem closer during the fog, rain, during cloudy days,
• items with bright color seems closer
• when observed from the bottom up, the distance seems closer, and when you observe from top to bottom, more,
• at night, glowing items seem closer.

Distance more than 1 km is determined with a greater accuracy reaching 50%. In experienced people, in small distances, the error is less than 10%. The eye meter must be constantly trained in various conditions of visibility, in various locals. At the same time, a huge positive role is made by tourism, mountaineering, hunting. This method is based on the concept of a thousandth. The thousandth is a unit of measurement of distances by horizon, and is 1/6000 horizon. The concept of thousandth adopted in all countries of the world, and is used to introduce horizontal corrections for the management of small arms and artillery systems, as well as the determination of distances and distances. Thousands are recorded and read next. way:

• 1 thousandth 0-01, read as zero, zero one,
• 5 thousand 0-05, read like zero, zero five,
• 10 thousands of 0-10, read as zero, ten,
• 150 thousands of 1-50, read as one, fifty,
• 1500 thousand 15-00, read as fifteen, zero zero.

The use of this method is possible if one of the linear items is known - the width or height. The range before the subject is determined by the next. Formula: d \u003d (BX1000) / y, where D is a distance to the target B - the width or height of the object in the meters y - the angular value of the thousandth. In order to determine the angular value, it is necessary to know that the segment of 1 mm removed by 50 cm from the eye corresponds to the corner of 2 thousandth (0-02). Based on this, there is a method for determining distances using a ruler:

• a line with millimeter divisions stretch to a distance of 50 cm,
• throw out how many divisions on the line laid the width or height of the object
• the resulting number of millimeters is multiplied by 2, and substitute the above formula.

It is even more convenient for these purposes to use a caliper, which can be shortened for compactness.

Example: The height of the telegraph pillar is 6 m when measuring on the line will take 8 mm (16 thousandths, i.e. 0-16), therefore, the distance to the post will be (6 × 1000) / 16 \u003d 375 m

Also exist more simple formula Detection of distance using a ruler:
D \u003d (height or width of the object in cm / count millimeters on the line) x 5

Example: The growth figure has a height of 170 cm and closes 2 mm on the line, therefore the distance to it will be: (170cm / 2mm) x 5 \u003d 425 m

Determination of distances with a ruler and handicraft items

Linear dimensions of common objects

In the absence of a ruler, the angular values \u200b\u200bcan be measured by the help of submitted items, knowing their linear dimensions. It can be, for example, matchboxes, match, pencil, coin, cartridges, fingers, etc. For example, the matchbox has a length - 45 mm, a width of 30 mm, a height of 15 mm, therefore, if it is pulled out at a distance of 50 cm, Its length will correspond to 0-90, width 0-60, height 0-30.

Definition of Sound Distance

A person has the ability to capture and distinguish between the sounds of various nature, both in the horizontal plane and vertical, which allows it to be very successful to determine the distances to sound sources. A rumor, like the Eyemer needs to be constantly trained.

• The rumor works with a complete return only with the full tranquility of the psyche.
• Lying on the back, the auditory orientation worsens, and lying on the stomach improves
• Green color improves hearing
• A piece of sugar, laid under the tongue, significantly improves night vision and hearing, because glucose is necessary for the work of the heart, the brain, nervous system, consequently, the senses.
• Sounds are well audible in open areas, especially water, in calm weather
• Heard worsens in hot weather, against the wind, in the forest, in the reeds, on loose grass.

Average distance of hearing of various sources

Measure the corresponding segment using a ruler. Preferably, it is made from as thin as possible. sheet material. In the event that the surface on which is distilled, is not flat, the port of the porter meter will help. And in the absence of a thin line, and if the map is not sorry to pierce, it is convenient to use a circuit for measuring, preferably with two needles. Then it can be transferred to millimeter paper and measure the length of the segment along it.

Roads between two points are rarely straight. Measure the length of the line will help a convenient device - Kurvimeter. To use them, first the rotation of the roller align the arrow with zero. If the Kurvimeter is electronic, set it to zero manually optionally - just press the reset button. Holding the roller, press it to the starting point of the segment so that the risk on the housing (it is located above the roller) pointed directly to this point. Then lead the roller along the line until the risk is combined with the end point. Read the readings. Note that some Kurvimeters have two scales, one of which has a graduation in centimeters, and the other in inches.

Find a zoom index on the map - it is usually located in the lower right corner. Sometimes this pointer is a segment of a calibrated length, next to which it is indicated, which distance it corresponds to. Measure the length of this cut line. If it turns out, for example, that it has a length of 4 centimeters, and next to it is indicated, which corresponds to 200 meters, divide the second number on the first, and you will learn that everyone on the map corresponds to 50 meters on the ground. On some instead of a segment there is a finished phrase, which may look, for example, as follows: "In one centimeter 150 meters." Also, the scale can be specified as the ratio of the following form: 1: 100000. In this case, you can calculate that the centimeter on the map corresponds to 1000 meters on the ground, since 100,000/100 (centimeters in the meter) \u003d 1000 m.

The distance expressed in centimeters measured or crossmeter measured in centimeters, multiply to the map specified on the map or a calculated number of meters or in one centimeter. The result will result in a real distance, expressed, respectively, or kilometers.

Any card is a reduced image of some kind of territory. The coefficient showing how long the image is reduced relative to the real object is called a scale. Knowing it, you can determine distance by . For reality existing maps on the paper based Scale - fixed value. For virtual, electronic cards, this value is changing along with the change in the image of the map on the monitor screen.

Instruction

If your based on, then find it called a legend. Most often, it is in a gradious design. In legend, the scale of the card must be specified, which will tell you, measured in distance This will be in reality, on. So, if the scale is 1: 15000, then this means that 1 cm on map Equal to 150 meters on the ground. If the scale of the card is 1: 200000, then 1 cm pending on it is 2 km in reality

That distancewhich interests you. Note that if you want to determine how quickly you will come to or reach from one house to another in or from one settlement to another, then your route will consist of straight cuts. You will not move in a straight line, but along the route passing along the streets and roads.

800+ Abstract
just for 300 rubles!

* Old price - 500 rubles.
The action is valid until 08/31/2018

Questions Classes:

1. Essence and methods of orientation.

When performing many combat missions, the commanders are inevitably associated with the orientation on the ground. The ability to focus is necessary, for example, on a march, in battle, in intelligence for maintaining the direction of movement, targeting, applying to the map (area scheme) of landmarks, goals and other facilities, department management and fire. Fastened by experience and skills in orienteering help more confidently and successfully carry out combat mission in various conditions of combat situation and in unfamiliar area.
Focus on terrain - It means to determine its location and directions on the parties of the horizon relative to the surrounding local objects and form of relief, find the specified direction of movement and accurately withstand it on the way. When oriented in a combat situation, the location of the unit relative to their troops and the enemy troops, the location of the landmarks, the direction and depth of action are also determined.
Essence of orientation. The location orientation may be general and detailed.
General orientation It is the approximate definition of its location, the direction of movement and the time required to achieve the final point of movement. Such orientation is most often applied on a march when the crew of the machine has no cards, and only uses a predetermined diagram or list of settlements and other landmarks on the route. To maintain the direction of movement in this case, it is necessary to constantly monitor the time of movement traveled by a distance determined by the speedometer of the machine, and control the flow of settlements and other landmarks according to the scheme (list).
Detailed orientation It is to accurately define its location and movement direction. It is applied when oriented on a map, aerospace, ground navigation devices, when moving in azimuth, application to the card or scheme of explored facilities and goals, when determining the objects achieved and in other cases.
When oriented the locality is widely used simplest Methods of orientation: on the compass, celestial luminais and signs of local items, as well as a more complex way - on the map.

2. Orientation on the area without a map: Determination of the side of the horizon on the celestial luminaires and signs of local items.

To find the directions on the sides of the world, the direction of north-south is determined at the beginning; After that, becoming a face to the north, which determines will have the right - east, to the left - the West. The sides of the world are usually found according to the compass, and in the absence of it - through the Sun, the Moon, the stars and for some signs of local items.
2.1 Determination of directions on the side of the horizon on celestial luminaires
In the absence of a compass or in the areas of magnetic anomalies, where the compass can give erroneous readings (samples), the horizon side can be determined by heavenly luminas: during the day - in the sun, and at night - on the polar star or the moon.

By the Sun.
In the northern hemisphere of the place of sunrise and sunset at the time of year the following:

• in winter, the sun rises in the south-east, and comes in southwest;
• summer Sun dates back to the northeast, and comes in the north-west;
• in the spring and autumn, the sun rises in the east, and enters the West.

The sun is approximately 7.00 in the East, at 13.00 - in the south, at 19.00 - in the West. The position of the Sun in this clock and will indicate respectively directions to the East, South and West.
The shortest shadow from local items is at 13 o'clock, and the direction of the shade from vertically located local items will point to the north.
For a more accurate definition of the side of the horizon on the Sun, wrist watches are used.

Table 1

2.2 Determination of directions on the side of the horizon on the signs of local items
If there is no compass and not visible celestial luminaries, then the side of the horizon can be determined by some signs of local items.

By melting snow
It is known that the southern side of the items heats up more than the northern, respectively and the melting of snow on this side happens faster. It is clearly visible in early spring And during the thaw in winter on the slopes of ravines, the holes in the trees, the snow sticking to the stones.

In shadows
At noon, the direction of the shadows (it will be the shortest) indicates north. Without waiting for the short shadow, it is possible to navigate the following way. Stick into the ground a stick about 1 meter long. Mark the end of the shadow. Wait 10-15 minutes and repeat the procedure. Spend a line from the first position of the shade to the second and extend one step further than the second mark. Become a left leg sock opposite the first mark, and right - at the end of the line you have drawn. Now you are standing face north.

In local subjects
It is known that the resin performs more on the southern half of the trunk of coniferous wood, the ants make their homes from the south side of the tree or bush and make the southern slope of the anthill more gentle than the northern (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Definition of the side of the horizon According to the signs of local items.

The bark of birch and pine on the north side is darker than on southern, and tree trunks, stones, protrusions rocks are thick covered with moss and lichen. IN large arrays The cultural forest is to determine the parties of the horizon, according to prospects, which, as a rule, are cut strictly along the north-south lines and east-west, as well as on the inscriptions of block numbers on the pillars installed at the intersections of pros. On each such post in the upper part and on each of the four faces, numbers are affixed - the numbering of opposite forest quarters; The edge between two faces with the smallest numbers shows the direction to the north (the numbering of quarters of forest arrays in the CIS comes from west to the east and then south).

On the buildings
To buildings that are quite strictly oriented on the sides of the horizon include churches, mosques, synagogues.
Altari and Chapel of Christian and Lutheran churches are facing the east, the bell tower to the west.
The lowered edge of the lower crossbar of the cross on the dome of the Orthodox Church is addressed to the south, raised - to the north.
Altari Catholic chosets are located on the western side.
The doors of Jewish synagogue and Muslim mosques are approached by about north, their opposite parties are directed: mosques - to Mecca in Arabia, lying on the meridian of Voronezh, and Synagogue - on Jeridian in Palestine, lying on the Meridian of Dnepropetrovsk.
Kamurni, Pagoda, Buddhist monasteries facades are facing south.
Exit from UU is usually done south.
In rural houses, more windows in residential premises are cut from the south side, and the paint on the walls of the buildings from the south is fading more and has a beastful color.

3. Determination of the side of the horizon, magnetic azimuths, horizontal angles and direction of movement on the compass.

3.1 Determination of directions on the side of the horizon on the compass
With the help of the compass, the north, south, west and east can be determined most convenient and quickly (Fig. 5). To do this, you need a compass to make a horizontal position, freeing up the arrow from the clamp, give it to calm down. Then the fetoid end of the arrow will be directed to the north.

To determine the accuracy of deviation of the direction of movement from the direction to the north or to determine the positions of the area points relative to the direction to the north and reference, they are divided into the compass, of which the lower designated in degrees (division price is 3 °), and the upper divisions of the tallness In tens of "thousands". The degrees are counted along a clockwise arrow from 0 to 360 °, and the division of the teller - against the time of the clockwise from 0 to 600 °. The zero division is located at the letter "C" (North), there is also a luminous triangle in the dark, replacing the letter "C" in some compasses.
Under the letters "B" (East), "Yu" (south), "3" (West) are glowing points. On the movable cap of the compass, there is a visitor device (sight and fly), against which the glowing pointers that serve to indicate the direction of movement at night are strengthened. In the army, the most common compass system of the Andrianov system and an artillery compass.
When working with a compass, you should always remember that strong electromagnetic fields Or closely arranged metal objects deflect the arrow from its correct position. Therefore, when determining the directions on the compass, it is necessary to move 40-50 meters from the power lines, railway canvas, combat vehicles and other large metal objects.
The definition of directions on the side of the horizon on the compass is performed as follows. The flying device is put on the zero division of the scale, and the compass is in a horizontal position. Then let the brake of the magnetic arrow and rotate the compass so that its north it is coincided with zero. After that, without changing the position of the compass, the remote reference point, which is used to indicate the direction to the north, not changing the position of the compass.

Then, without changing the position of the compass, establish a tricky device so that the line of sights through the whole and the fleet coincided with the direction for the subject. Counting of the flush scale corresponds to the magnitude of the determined magnetic azimuth direction to the local subject.
Azimuth directions from the point of standing on the local subject is called direct magnetic azimuth. In some cases, for example, to find the return path, use reverse magnetic azimuthwhich differs from the straight line 180 °. To determine the reverse azimuth, it is necessary to add 180 ° to direct azimuth if it is less than 180 °, or the subtraction of 180 ° if it is greater than 180 °.

3.3 Determination of horizontal corners on the compass
Initially, the muzzle of the compass carrier device is installed on the zero countdown of the scale. Then turning the compass in the horizontal plane is combined through the clarity and fly line of sight with the direction on the left subject (landmark).
After that, without changing the position of the compass, the visitor device is transferred to the direction to the right object and remove the countdown on the scale, which will correspond to the value of the measured angle in degrees.
When measuring the corner in thousands of The line of sight is combined first with the direction to the right object (landmark), since the bill of thousandth increases against the time of the clockwise.

4. Ways to determine the distances on the terrain and target designation.

4.1. Ways to determine the ranges on the ground
It is very often necessary to determine distances to various objects on the ground. The most accurate and fast distances are determined by special devices (range finders) and rangefinder scales of binoculars, stereotrub, sights. But due to the lack of devices, the distance is often determined by the helm and eye.
The common ways to determine the range (distances) to objects on the ground include the following: on the angular sizes of the object; on linear dimensions of objects; charming; Apparently (susceptibility) of objects; by sound and more ..

Determination of distances by corner sizesitems (Fig. 8) is based on the relationship between the angular and linear values. The angular sizes of objects are measured by thousands with the help of binoculars, monitoring and aiming devices, line, etc.
Some angular quantities (in thousandths of the distance) are shown in Table 2.
table 2

The distance to the items in meters is determined by the formula: , where in is the height (width) of the subject in meters; Y - the angular value of the subject in thousands.
For example (see Fig. 8): 1) angular size The reference point observed in the binoculars (telegraph pole with a backup), the height of which is 6 m, is to a small division of the grid of binoculars (0-05). Consequently, the distance to the landmark will be equal to: .
2) An angle of thousandth, measured by a ruler, located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, (1 mM is 0-02) between two telegraph columns 0-32 (telegraph poles are from each other at a distance of 50 m). Consequently, the distance to the landmark will be equal to: .
3) The height of the tree in the thousandth, measured by a range of 0-21 (the true height of the tree 6 m). Consequently, the distance to the landmark will be equal to: .
Determination of distances by linear sizes of objectslies in the following (Fig. 9). Using a ruler, located at a distance of 50 cm from the eye, measured in millimeters height (width) of the observed item. Then the actual height (width) of the subject in centimeters is divided into measured by a ruler in millimeters, the result multiplies to a constant number 5 and obtain the desired height of the subject in meters.

For example, the distance between the telegraph pillars is 50 m (Fig. 8) closes on the line of the segment of 10 mm. Consequently, the distance to the telegraph line is:
The accuracy of determining the distances over the angular and linear values \u200b\u200bis 5-10% of the length of the measured distance. To determine the distances over the angular and linear dimensions of items, it is recommended to remember the values \u200b\u200b(width, height, length) of some of them shown in Table. 3.
Table 3.

Determination of the distance by the eye
Gasier - This is the easiest and fastest way. The main thing in it is the training of visual memory and the ability to mentally postpone on the ground well-represented permanent measure (50, 100, 200, 500 meters). Securing these standards in memory, it is not difficult to compare with them and evaluate the distance to the area.
When measuring the distance by a consistent mental laying of a well-studied constant measure, it is necessary to remember that the terrain and local items seem reduced according to their removal, that is, when removing twice and the subject will seem two times less. Therefore, when measuring distances mentally laid segments (measures of terrain) will decrease according to removal accordingly.
It must be considered as follows:

• the closer the distance, the clearer and sharper seems to us the visible subject;
• the closer the subject, the more it seems more;
• larger items seem closer to small items that are at the same distance;
• the item is a brighter color seems closer than the subject of dark color;
• brightly illuminated objects seem closerly illuminated, located at the same distance;
• during the fog, rain, at twilight, cloudy days, with air saturation, dust observed items seem further than clear and sunny days;
• the sharper the difference in the coloring of the subject and the background, on which it is visible, the more reduced distance seems; So, for example, in the winter, a snowy field like the darker items that are on it are closer;
• items on an even-terrain seem closer than on hilly, especially abbreviated distances defined through extensive water spaces;
• the folds of the area (valleys of rivers, depressions, ravines), invisible or not fully visible by the observer, are cleaned;
• when observing lying items seem closer than when observing standing;
• when observed from the bottom up - from the sole of the mountain to the top, the objects seem closer, and when observed from top to bottom - further;
• when the sun is behind the serviceman, the distance is being built; shines in the eye - it seems great than in reality;
• the fewer objects on the section under consideration (when observed through the aquatic space, a smooth meadow, steppe, arable land), the distance seems less.

The accuracy of the character depends on the travelery of the serviceman. For a distance of 1000 m, a regular error ranges in the range of 10-20%.

Definition of distances like (susceptibility) of objects
It is possible to approximately determine the distance to the goals (objects) by the degree of visibility. The soldier with normal urgency of view can see and distinguish between some items from the following limits specified in Table 4.
It should be borne in mind that the table indicates the limit distances from which those or other items begin to be visible. For example, if a soldier saw a pipe on the roof of the house, then this means that the house is not more than 3 km, and not exactly 3 km. Use this table as a reference not recommended. Each serviceman must specify this data individually for himself.
Table 4.

Orientation by sounds.
At night and in fog, when observation is limited or is impossible at all (and in a highly rough terrain and in the forest, both at night and in the afternoon) rumors come to the aid.
Military personnel must learn to determine the nature of the sounds (that is, what they mean), the distance to the sounds of sounds and the direction from which they proceed. If different sounds are heard, the soldier must be able to distinguish them from each other. The development of such an ability is achieved by a long training (in the same way a professional musician distinguishes the tool votes in the orchestra).
Almost all sounds meaning the danger are produced by a person. Therefore, if a soldier hears even the weakest suspicious noise, he must measure in place and listen. If the enemy starts moving first, thereby giving out its location, then it will be first and will be detected.
In a quiet summer night, even an ordinary human voice in the open space is heard away, sometimes on Polkilometer. In the frosty autumn or winter night, all sorts of sounds and noises are heard very far. This also applies to speech, and steps, and stabbing dishes or weapons. In foggy weather, sounds are also heard away, but their direction is difficult to determine. On the surface of calm water and in the forest, when there is no wind, the sounds are spreading on a very long distance. But the rain is strongly shuffling sounds. The wind blowing towards the serviceman brings the sounds, and from him - removes. He also refers the sound to the side, creating a distorted idea of \u200b\u200bthe location of its source. Mountains, forests, buildings, ravines, gorges and deep dell change the direction of sound, creating an echo. Act echo and water spaces, contributing to its spread to large ranges.
The sound changes when the source moves on the soft, wet or rigid soil, on the street, along the country or field road, on the pavement or covered with the leaves. It must be borne in mind that the dry land better transfers the sounds than the air. At night, sounds are particularly well transmitted through the Earth. Therefore, they often listens, putting the ear to the ground or to the trunks of the trees. The average distance of the hearingness of various sounds in the afternoon in the smooth terrain, km (in summer) is shown in Table 5.
Table 5.

To listen to the sounds of lying, you need to lie on the stomach and listens to lying, trying to determine the direction of sounds. It is easier to do, turning one ear in the other side, where suspicious noise comes from. To improve audibility, it is recommended to apply to own sink Bended palms, a bowler, cutting pipe.
For better listening of sounds, you can attach an ear to a dry board laid on the ground, which serves as a sound collector, or to a dry log covered in the ground.

Determination of the distance on the speedometer. The distance traveled by the machine is defined as the difference in the speedometer readings at the beginning and end of the path. When driving on roads with a solid coating, it will be 3-5%, and on viscous soil by 8-12% more than the actual distance. Such errors in determining the distance from the speedometer arise from the slip of the wheels (caterpillars), wear of tire protector and tire pressure changes. If it is necessary to determine the distance traveled, the distance is possible more precisely, it is necessary to make a correction in the speedometer reading. Such a need arises, for example, straight movement in azimuth or when oriented using navigation instruments.
The magnitude of the amendment is determined before the march. To do this, the section of the road is selected, which, according to the nature of the relief and soil cover, is similar to the upcoming route. This site is passing with a marching speed in the direct and reverse directions, removing the speedometer testimony at the beginning and end of the site. According to the data obtained, the average value of the length of the control portion is determined and the magnitude of the same area determined by the map or on the ground with a ribbon (tape measure) is deducted from it. Dividing the resulting result on the length of the area measured by the map (on the ground), and multiplying 100, the correction factor is obtained.
For example, if the average value of the control portion is 4.2 km, and the measured on the map is 3.8 km, then the correction factor is:
Thus, if the length of the route measured on the map is 50 km, then 55 km will be on the speedometer, i.e., 10% more. The difference is 5 km and is the magnitude of the amendment. In some cases, it may be negative.

Measurement distance steps. This method is usually used when moving along azimuth, drafting schemes, drawing on the card (scheme) of individual objects and guidelines and in other cases. The account of steps is as a rule, pairs. When measuring the distance of a large length, the steps are more convenient to consider the top three to the left and right leg. After each hundred couples or trips of steps, a mark is made in some way and the counting begins again.
When transferring the measured distance with steps to meters, the number of pairs or troops of the steps multiplies the length of one pair or the troop of steps.
For example, between points of rotation on the route passed 254 pairs of steps. The length of one pair of steps is 1.6 m. Then
Usually, the step of human average is 0.7-0.8 m. The length of its step can be quite definitely determined by the formula: where the d-length of one step in meters; P - human growth in meters.
For example, if a person's height is 1.72 m, then the length of its step will be equal to:
More precisely, the length of the step is determined by the measurement of some level linear area of \u200b\u200bthe terrain, for example, the road, a length of 200-300 m, which is measured in advance with a measurable ribbon (roulette, a rangeference, etc.).
With an approximate measurement of the distance, the length of the pair of steps takes equal to 1.5 m.
The average measurement error with steps, depending on the conditions of the motion, is about 2-5% of the distance traveled.

Determining the distance in time and speed of movement. This method is used for an approximate determination of the distance traveled, for which the average speed is multiplied by the time of movement. The average pedestrian rate is about 5, and when driving on skis 8-10 km / h.
For example, if the reconnaissance watch was moving on skis 3 hours, then he passed about 30 km.

Determination of distances by the ratio of sound speeds and light. The sound propagates in the air at a speed of 330 m / s, i.e., rounded 1 km in 3 s, and the light is almost instant (300,000 km / h). Thus, the distance in kilometers to the outbreak point of the shot (explosion) is equal to the number of seconds that have passed from the moment of flash until the sound of the shot (explosion) was heard, shared by 3.
For example, the observer heard the sound of an explosion after 11c after the flash. The distance to the place of the flash will be:
Determination of distances by geometric construction on the ground. This method can be used in determining the width of difficult or impassable areas of terrain and obstacles (rivers, lakes, flooded zones, etc.). Figure 10 shows the determination of the width of the river construction on the terrain of an equally traded triangle.
Since in such a triangle, the catts are equal, then the width of the river AV is equal to the length of the speaker of the AU.
Point A is chosen on the ground so that the local subject (point B) is visible from it on the opposite shore, as well as along the bank of the river, it was possible to measure the distance equal to its width.

In both the first and in the second case, the angle at point A should be 90 °.
Light orienteeringit is very convenient to withstand the direction or to determine the position of the object on the ground. Move at night to the light source is most reliable. Distances on which light sources are found by the unarmed eye at night are shown in Table 6.