In France they were called Normans, in Russia - Varyagami. Vikings - people who lived in the territory of the current Norway, Denmark and Sweden from 800 to 1100 of our era approximately from 800 to 1100. Wars and peers are two favorite Viking classes. The rapid sea robbers on the ships who were called the names, for example, the "Bull of the Ocean", "Voron Wind", made raids on the coast of England, Germany, Northern France, Belgium - and were taken from conquered tribute.

Their desperate warriors-Berserki fought as mad, even without armor. Before the Battle of Berriki grilled their teeth, the edges of the shields were biting. The cruel gods of Viking - Asam were pleasing warriors who died in battle.

But it was these ruthless warriors that opened the Islands of Iceland (in ancient language - "Ice Land") and Greenland ("Green Earth": Then the climate was warmer than now!). And the leader of the Vikings Leif is happy in 1000, sailing from Greenland, landed in North America, on Newfoundland Island. Vikings called the Outdoor Earth Winland - "Rich." Due to the shades with the Indians and among themselves, Vikings soon left and forgotten America, lost contact with Greenland.

And before our time they reached their songs about heroes and travelers - Sagi and Icelandic parliament, the first national assembly in Europe.

The beginning of the Viking era is considered to be 793 years old. This year, the famous Normanov attack on the monastery, located on the island of Lindisfarne (Northeast of Great Britain), occurred. It was then that England, and soon and the whole of Europe learned about the terrible "northern people" and their dragon-headed ships. In 794 they "visited" the nearby Island of Vearamus (there was also a monastery), and in 802-806 they got to the islands of Maine and Ihone (the West Coast of Scotland)

In twenty years, the Normans were collected by a large army for the campaign to England and France. In 825 g, Vikings landed in England, and in 836, London was first plundered. In 845 g, the city was divided into 845, and the city was divided so much that the bishopath located in Hamburg had to be transferred to Bremen in 851, 350 ships appeared again off the coast of England, this time were captured (and of course looted) London and Canterbury.

In 866, a storm several ships were attributed to the shores of Scotland, where the Normans had to winter. The following, 867 was formed by the New Dahlov State (DanelW). It includes Northumbria, East England, part of Essex and Mercia. Durable dutured until 878. At the same time, London was captured again in England, London was captured again, and then Normans moved to France. In 885, Rouen was captured, and Paris was in siege (in 845, in 857 and 861, Paris was already plundered). Having received a redemption, the Vikings removed the siege and moved to the northwestern part of France, which in 911 was transferred to Norwegian Rolonne. The area received the name of Normandy.

At the beginning of the first century, Dana was trying again to capture England, which was only in 1016. Anglosex managed to throw their power only after forty years, in 1050. But they did not have time to enjoy freedom. In 1066, a huge fleet under the command of Wilhelm the conqueror, a normandy leaving attacked in England. After the battle of Hastings in England, Normans reigned.

Viking raids map in England

In 861, Scandinavians learned about Iceland from Chohan Gardara Svafarson. Soon after that, in 872, the union of Norway by Harald beautiful, and many Norwegians fled to Iceland. According to some reports, up to 930 in Iceland moved from 20,000 to 30,000 Norwegians. Later, they began to call themselves Icelanders, separating themselves in this way from the Norwegians and other Scandinavian peoples.

In 983, from Iceland for the murder for three years, a man named Eika Raud (red) was sent. He went to search for the country, which, according to rumors, was seen in the west of Iceland. He managed to find this country called by Greenland ("Green Country"), which sounds rather strangely in relation to this snow-covered and cold island. In Greenland, Eica founded the settlement of Brattalid.

In 986, a certain Bryarni Bardsson sailed from Iceland, intending to get to Greenland. He stumbled on an unknown land three times until he reached the southern coast of Greenland. Having learned about this, Leif Eyriksson, son of Eika Raud, repeated the journey of Baryni, coming to the Labrador Peninsula. Then he turned to the south and, having passed along the coast, found a terrain called "Winland" ("Grape Country"). Presumably this happened in 1000. According to the results of the work carried out by scientists, Wellands Leif Eyriksson was located in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Boston.

After the return of Leif, Torvald Aiksson went to Winland, his brother. He lived there for two years, but in one of the skits with local Indians was mortally wounded, and his comrades had to return home.

The second brother of Leif, Torstain Eyriksson, also tried to reach Wilan, but he could not find this land.
In Greenland, there were only about 300 estates. Lack of forest created great difficulties for life. The forest grew up on Labrador, which was closer than in Iceland, but everything necessary had to carry from Europe, due to very difficult conditions of swimming in Labrador. Settlements in Greenland existed until the XIV century.

Travel Map of Eika Red and Leif Eiksson

History of Viking

Vikings - (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia who committed in 9-11 centuries. Camping with a length of up to 8000 km, maybe over long distances. These bold and fearless people in the east reached the borders of Persia, and in the West - new light.
The word "Viking" goes back to the ancient Years "Vikingr". Regarding his origin, there are a number of hypotheses, the most convincing of which builds it to Vick - Fiord, the bay. The word "Viking" (letters. "Man from Fiorland") was used to designate the robbers, which acted in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays. In Scandinavia, they were known long before they acquired bad fame in Europe. The French called Vikings Normans or various options of this word (Norse, Nortmanns - letters. "People from the North"); The British of all Scandinavians were called the Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, the Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Varyags.

Wherever the Vikings go - on British O-Va, France, Spain, Italy or North Africa, they ruthlessly robbed and captured other people's lands. In some cases, they settled in the conquered countries and became their rulers. Danish Vikings have conquered England for some time, settled in Scotland and Ireland. Together, they won part of France, known as Normandy. Norwegian Vikings and their descendants have created a colony on the islands of the North Atlantic - Iceland and Greenland and founded the settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, however, which existed not long. Swedish Vikings began to rule in the east Baltic. They spread widely in Russia and, descending on the rivers to the Black and Caspian seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. Vikings were the last German barbarians-conquerors and the first European navigators-pioneers.

There are different interpretations of the reasons for a rapid outbreak of the viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia has been overcoles and many Scandinavians went abroad in search of happiness. Rich, but unprotected cities and monasteries of the Southern and Western neighbors were easy prey. It was unlikely that you could get a rebuff from the scattered kingdoms on the British O-Wah or a weakened Empire of Karl the Great, absorbed by dynastic straight. In the era of Vikings in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, national monarchies gradually consolidated. Ambolism leaders and powerful clans fought for power. The victims defeated the leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of the victims of the leaders, unseenly perceived the unobstructed robbery as a lifestyle. Energetic young people from influential families usually acquired authority thanks to participate in one or several campaigns. Many Scandinavians were engaged in robbery in the summer, and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, Vikings Manil not only the temptation of mining. Perspective to establish trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, the followers from Sweden controlled trade routes in Russia.

The English term "Viking" occurred from the VKingr VKingr, which could have several values. The most acceptable, apparently, the origin from the word VK is the bay, or the bay. Consequently, the word vking is translated as a "man from the bay." This term was used to designate robbers, covering in coastal waters, long before the Vikings acquired the unkind glory in the outside world. However, not all the scandinavians were marine robber, and the terms "Viking" and "Scandinav" cannot be considered as synonyms. The French usually called the Vikings of the Normans, and the British of all Scandinavians were without parsing were to the Danes. Slavs, Khazara, Arabs and Greeks, who communicated with Swedish Vikings, called their Rus or Varyags.

Definitions

Vikings (Dr.-Skand.), Scandinavians - participants in marine trade and robbing and conquering campaigns at the end of the 8th 11th centuries. to European countries. In Russia, they were called Varyags, and Western Europe - Normans (Skand. Northman - "Northern Man"). In the 9th century Captured Northeastern England, 10 V. - Northern France (Normandy). Reached North America.
Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius

About three centuries from 800 to 1050 years. e. Wiking warriors floated on their ships, terrorizing Europe. They sailed from Scandinavia in search of silver, slaves and lands. Vikings were mostly attacked Britain and France, while those invaded Russia. Vikings investigated many unknown land, floating on the huge Atlantic Ocean.

"The influence of the Vikings on the formation of the Anglo-Saxon state."

Ranned medieval Europe lived in fear of invasion of warlike northern barbarians. Everywhere they were called in different ways: in France - Normans, in England - Danes, in Ireland - Finngalle and Dubgall, in Germany - Askemann, in Byzantium - Varangi, in Russia - Varyagi, in Scandinavia their name was Vikings, so that period, which researchers prefer to be neutral called the early medieval, also called the Epoch of Vikings

Despite the fact that the British called Vikings Danami, among the attackers for English lands were not only they, but also the Vikings from other areas of Scandinavia. An example is the famous Olaf Thuggvasson (or, in English transcription, trigvasson -trigvasson), the great-grandmother of the Norwegian king Harald beautiful. For simplicity, I think you can combine both others under the general and generally accepted term Norman.

Normanov's raids, initially the robbers, since the 60s of the IX century, acquire a completely different character. Their main purpose becomes the seizure of territories. It is difficult to unambiguously identify the cause of such a powerful grip-colonization movement of Northerners. Some (J. Brenested, for example), after the idea put forward by another Y. Steenstrup a hundred years ago, it is believed that it was a consequence of overpopulation due to polygamy, others - most likely it happened because of the desires of individual Scandinavian cones With its authority, disparate ownership of independent leaders. Some submitted to them and became their blesses, some stubbornly fought, and some rushed over the sea in search of a new homeland. And restless sea wretcheds raised all the European ones. From the 830s, and especially since 840, the seaside regions of France began periodically exposed to the invasions of Normans.
From the mid-50s, their aggression increases, and they are increasingly moving into the country's depths.

The horror was filled with the hearts of Christians when the northern barbarians rushed into the church and killed the bishops, blood flowed right on the altar - it was the greatest desecration, stunningly surrounding. So sudden inventual misfortunes were incomprehensible to mind, but the wisdom of church hierarchs did not know the borders - the answer was found: the Lord was angry and decided to shout his people, it is only necessary to wait when the sky will change the wrath of mercy and everything! But Normans did not leave ...

During his work, I met only one very detailed periodization of the invasions of the Viking. The Soviet researcher of the Viking Epoch G. S. Lebedev leads its chronology of the spread of northern aggression:

Stage 1 - 793-833. G. S. Lebedev begins the Epoch of Vikings with Lindisfarne's looting. By the largest enterprise of this period, he considers the chassis of Gottfried to Friesland in 810.

Stage 2 - 834-863. During this period, G. S. Lebedev notes changes in the tactics of the Viking: Stradkhugg - seizure of livestock and other food zone of hostilities, as well as the construction of intermediate bases of the welded islands. The number of armies during this period is especially high and reaches 77 thousand people, as if all the combat-ready population rushed to rob neighbors. Fleems combined between 100-150 ships, which is somewhere 6-10 thousand soldiers. The most famous figure of this etcooperiod is the famous Ragnar Labrook and his sons.

3 Stage - 864-891. During this period, the Vikings was undertaken by a large-scale attempt to conquer England, the area of \u200b\u200bDanish law is formed.

4 Stage - 891-920. For this time, according to G. S. Lebedev, a high wave of emigration is characterized: Iceland was opened in 877. In addition, the 890s - the time of activity of the Jolva Pedestrian, whom historians associate Srollo, received in 911 in Lena Dutchhood Norman.

5 Stage - 920-950. During these years, the fierce struggle for Northubra is flared up in England between the Danans and the heirs of the Wessec king Alfred.

Stage 6 - 950-980. From this thirtieth anniversary of the city of S. Lebedev begins the era of Konongov-Viking.

7 Stage - 980-1014. Konoundi Sven Wilobery and Olaf Triuggwason again lead a large-scale campaign to conquer England. In 1000, in the "Battle of the Three Kings" in the waters of Zunda Olaf heroically fell in battle, and Sven won the English throne at the end of 1013, although he died on February 2, 1014. In the same period in 982, Eric Redhead opened Greenland, from 985 995, the expeditions of Baryn Herulfson, Leif Erikson and Freigdis daughter Erica Redhead to the shores of North America took place.

8 Stage - 1014-1043. These are the years of the reign of the Danish dynasty in England: the whip of the Great and his sons of Harold Zaizozochoe and a fitness.

Stage 9 - 1043-1066. The final stage in the chronology of S. Lebedev. In 1041, Magnus Olafson joined Denmark and Norway under his authority, and on September 25, 1066, in England, the last Konung Viking Harald Hardrada was killed in Battle at Stamford Bridge.

The era of Vikings began and ended, according to Lebedev, in English land. No researcher who wrote about these tragic times does not refuse to infuse to quote or at least mention the entry in the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which captured the appearance of Normans from the English banks in the consciousness of Anglo-Saxons as a terrible event, accompanied by mysterious and frightening signs: "793. This year Scary phenomena were in the Northumbria and were very frightened by the inhabitants: there were unimaginable outbreaks of lightning and terrible dragons batted in the sky, and soon there was a strong hunger, and after that, the same year the pagans were empty and destroyed God's church in Lindisfarne. "

And the other text draws a slightly different picture, but also accompanied by a terrible event: "787. This year, the king of Beotrik took the Idburg's wife, the daughter of offs. And for the first time, three ships appeared: and Rive crushed there and tried to make them go to Royal Manor, because he did not know who they were, and they killed him. These were the first ships of the Danes who came to England. " Both disadvantages are imbued with horror before the new enemy, who had to have a big impact on the development of the Anglo-Saxon state.

Huskarla

We can more or less confidently assume that during the reign in England Knuta as the guard of the king in the whole kingdom, soldiers whose organization still remains a mystery for historians, but who are of great interest and sheepdins legends - to Huskarlam.

"1018. This year, all the England paid that tribute. There were only 72,000 pounds, in addition to what residents of London paid 10,500 pounds. And then the part of the army went to Denmark, and forty ships remained the twenty twine, and the Danes and the British came to an agreement in the agreement. Oxford according to the laws of Edgar "(Anglo-Saxon Chronicle).

It is believed that the teams of these remaining ships and amounted to the foundation of the Royal Guard, which was the object of very close attention and study.

Huskarls were royal servants and played a key role in battles, being the core of the army. The general opinion, to which researchers came regarding Huskarlov, and which was only recently questioned, represented them as professional warriors, whose organization was created inside the Royal Surgence of the Danes Management Board.

They regularly paid a salary. Thus, the Huskarls formed a kind of military elite.
British historians considered the Guard of Huskarlov as something like a military warriors, and considered them purely English education.

Norwegian historians will lead the origins of this institute to the famous Viking Brotherhood in the Yombruh (whiten).
Others, on the contrary, argues that this organization was borrowed from Norway and Huskarlas existed there for 100 years before the Pirate Brotherhood in Jombourg:
Huscarl - Norwegian Word, and one of the oldest languages. In EDDA, \u200b\u200bit sometimes denotes the servant, and sometimes the follower, comrades.
But when we discover the court poetry of the first half of the XI century, then the latter value prevails.
So Huskarl is a general designation for a member of the Royal Environment.

Despite the fact that the sagas give different dates of the foundation of the guard: Yomsviking Saga and Saga about St. Olaf - to death covered vitoborodoye; Knutlingasaga - immediately after his death, first in Denmark, and then in England; Finally, the medieval Danish historians are Sven Aggeseson and Sakson grammatics- ascribe to the organization Knut, which is accepted by all historians.

According to Crawn Aggeseson, the Guard could be anyone who had a double-edged sword with a handle imparted in gold, "and the rich warriors were in a hurry to get the corresponding swords that the ringing from the shamers who had swamps were heard throughout the earth." The selection was most likely produced in 1018, when Knut, after the conquest of England, sent most of the troops back to Denmark.

In any case, in 1023 the Guard already existed. Sven Aggeseson describes the laws on which the military squad of the whip was managed. Huskarles were placed behind the King tables in accordance with the celebrity with tactful exploits, superiority service or birth of birth. Movement to a lower place meant disfavor.

In addition to daily content and entertainment, Huskarls received a monthly salary. To pay from all over the country they were collected tribute to the content of the army, the so-called. "Army money."

It is possible that the Huskarls collected this tax for themselves. An example may be the case when they plundered the city of Worcester during the board of the son of the whip attach. The service bonds were not constant, but could only be terminated on the day of the new year. All quarrels were to be resolved at the oath of two Huskarlov in the original advice of the guard, where the king was also to be present. Those who were recognized as guilty of insignificant misconduct (for example, not quite well courted for a horse of a friend), - they were moving to lower places behind the royal table. If someone accused three times in such misconduct, he should have given the most recent and lowest place at the table, where no one could have been communicating with him under any pretext, and the piruses could have a bone into him with impunity. If disagreements arose from the ground and production - there were oaths of six huskarlov, selected from the detachment, to which those who argued, but the authorities belonged to the Council. Who will kill his comrade, it means to lose his head or find yourself in reference: "He must be expelled from the royal possessions and is declared out of law; and should be expelled from all the land, koiming the rules" - reports to us Sven Aggeseson. The betrayal was punishable by death and confiscation of the entire property of the traitor. If someone King noted - the gorgeous blade with a golden handle became a gift. In general, it seems that it was the tradition of the Scandinavian kings to give the sword to the one who took them to the service.

It is believed that only about 3 thousand people were in the guard. Apparently, if there would be a golden handle on each Huskarlah, then no treasury would have been enough. Therefore, most likely that mostly Huskarls were gained from noble and rich families.
In the New Year, namely, on the seventh day of Christmas holidays, the Guardsmen had the right to leave the service and get their salary. On the same day, the most worthy were gifted by gifts; Delivered in the guard.

This custom also goes from Norway and is rooted in the time of St. Olaf. Norwegian kings usually only arranged the feast for the new year, where they ate and drank with their guard.

There is a suggestion that Huskarlas in some cases could fulfill the role of the Council of the King.
In addition, it is likely that during the time of whuskarli knuta, they became a new interlayer of English nobility. In addition to regular fees, they seemed to have ended the earth. Getting the earth, Huskarli "actually ceased to be mercenaries, becoming landowners holding land on military service conditions."

As about the military organization, the guild is known to little. Sakson Grammar writes that in the summer of Huskarls were abroad, guarding the kingdom; In winter, they were housed throughout England. He also says that Huskarla could have his own home.
From the history of Sven of Aggeseson, it follows that the Guard was divided into four formations, and they, in turn, smaller detachments. But relative to this issue, modern sources are silent.

And finally, historians who hold this (so-called traditional) point of view on the Guard of Huskarlov, express different points of view about her death. Some believe that the last Huskarlas were dissolved in 1051. Others in principle agree, but it is believed that the detachments of Huskarlov were restored by Harold, the last king of the Anglo-Saxon England. And all the others who applied to this plot, are convinced that the Guard existed until 1066, when Wilhelm illegitimately headed the last in the history of the victorious invasion of England.

Huskarls were the only in Harold's troops, who did not step down after the king himself was killed. The whole guard died in this battle and has not been restored.
The time of the Viking ended.

"Round Viking Forts in Denmark."
Trelleborg.

Round concentric forts of Denmark - Probably the most impressive and unusual phenomenon of the Viking era.
The first found Fort was Trelleborg - archaeologists were excavated about 60 years ago. It is located on the caulation between the two rivers and in order to create a foundation for such a strictly geometric fort, it was necessary to transfer to this place. great amount Earth.

Trelleborg consists of a round basic fort and external fortifications. The main fort is 134 meters in diameter, heated around the circle, has four entrances of interconnected tracks and dividing the inner territory into four equal parts.
Each quarter contains by block of four long houses located around the courtyard.

There were also 15 buildings built in parallel, and a cemetery, also in external fortifications.
Long household houses (they were about 30) had almost 30 meters long and everyone was made of wood. A lot of wood was also used to enhance the strengthening of the main inner fort, which was discovered by wooden palico and outside and inside.
Trelleborg was built around 980, during the rule of Garald Sinzube, who is also considered the builder of other major buildings of Epochivikings.

The dimensions of the fort and its strict geometric plan, in which it seems nothing was left without attention, indicate that in Denmark at the time there was already a strong royal power that could mobilize significant resources for such construction.
The military functions of the Trellelection, as well as other similar forts, most likely combined with administrative and trade in order to make mercilla power throughout the country.

This is confirmed by the finds in the burials of the Trellelection. These are mostly the graves of young men, but sometimes there are burials of women and children, which makes it possible to assume that families lived in Forte.

Located on a small cape, outstanding into a wide river valley, Fort Furkat (FYRKAT) is almost identical to the Fort Trelleborg. Both are built according to the same strict geometric plan - a round shaft with a four goal, connected by the laid tracks so that they divided the inner area into four equal parts. On the territory of each quarter there was a block of four buildings that made a square with an inland yard.

Reconstruction of the internal device of the fort.

Furkat differs from the Trellelection only with dimensions - Fuchet is slightly smaller, and he has no external fortifications.
Both forts were built at about one time - about 980. The burial-related burials indicate that it was inhabited by men and women, and children.
Only one of four buildings each quarter later was used as a residential.

Archaeological finds indicate that other buildings were used as forge, storerooms, stables, gold and silver workshops of masters.

Not far from Furucat in Worbasse (Vorbasse), the remains of the flourishing farm of the time of the Viking era were found.

"Restoration of" ships

Naturally, the "live" of the ancient ships, where they walked a thousand years ago, not survived in Scandinavia. The legends mention a lot of ships, each with their name and special properties, there are some information about the masters of ships and how Vikings belonged to their ships. Alas, legends are few, as ever always, when it comes to something unremarkable, so that people every day before their eyes. Those who told, and then recorded a legend of long and recent events, did not think at all about how people who belong to a completely different type of culture would be in a thousand years old, people who will be in the wonder all that for ancient viking It happened by itself.

Scientists, of course, not going to surrender. In addition to the told, they had other sources of information, in particular, the rock paintings, the large masters of whom the scandinavians were from primitive times. Drawings related not only to the era of the Vikings, but also to bronze and even stone Age, contain a lot of pictures of boats and ships. Scientists accumulated various information, gradually making up of them, as if from pieces of broken mosaic, something like a one-piece picture. It happened, however, so that the most comprehensive response to many questions came from ... Grass Kurgans.

But why, it is asked, the ancient scandinavas was to bury the ship to the ground? Vikings believed that, hitting the insidual of the gods, the soul of the heroic warrior will be indulged by the uta joy, that's just about the byaded hits on the ships, the myths do not mention. The Heavenly Friend of the Father of the Gods represented themselves more like a squad of riders, hurrying to the place of battle. Moreover, the burial in the Floor was recorded among the peoples for whom the navigation did not have that comprehensive value as for Scandinavians - for example, the Slavs. And the ancient Celts, those at all carried the deceased to the burial place in the boat. Although they were not such born navigators as Scandinavians. What's the matter? By comparing the burial inventory among themselves - the property that put in the grave along with the deceased, - at the most diverse tribes, scientists came to the conclusion: this inventory is inherent in not so much merchant warrior, artisan, a hunter, or who else was still dead during his life, how much traveler. According to the ancient people, it was possible to get to the light and without any magical tricks, it was worth only to make a fairly long journey. Scandinavians, Horonia Poid, with certain rituals put on his special burial shoes on him and tried to stronger them to tie them so that they would not fall in the distant path. And that is characteristic: in almost every religion, the water barrier is mentioned, which the traveling to the world is different to overcome. For Scandinavian mythology, this is a rabid mountain stream, carrying stones and slices of ice or a bottomlessly deep sea strait - that is, something inherent in exactly the Scandinavian nature. That is why the deceased was very desirable to have a reliable "floating site" in the afterlife. Initially, a small boat was used for this purpose, when they began to build and actively use big ships, it was quite natural that they were to be considered suitable for the initial travel of a noble person.

This is how the combat ships of the leaders of the Viking sometimes turned out to be inside the mounds, under the layer of dense blue clay, which did not pass atmospheric oxygen to wooden designs. What helped save them for science.

Everyone who wants to learn more about these vessels, as well as about others, here not to be described, it is recommended to contact the book of Iolen Von Fathers "Court of Vikings", published in Rostock in 1979 and translated in St. Petersburg in 1982.

Ship tree

Having studied in all parts of the vessel from Gokstad and Soviserg, the specialists at one time believed that Oak was a favorite material of shipbuilders. From the book in the book, the statement was also used to be used ash, beech, birch, pine, spruce, linden, Iva, and even alder, but there's a post-since ... This view was held until the copies of the ancient ships began to build. It turned out that it turned out that the gokestadsky and herpasian ships were not "serious" shipping vessels - rather, both of them served something like royal yachts, on which kingung walks or, in the case of Usibergskaya Ludia, a widowing government. It is also possible that both vessels were built for solemn burial. Anyway, in the present sea swimming and the other ship would have to be bad. Although the dimensions and diversion of both are withstanding in the best traditions of their time.

Experienced sailors who were given to try "in the case" recreated Viking ships were shocked by the flexibility and elasticity of the body on the wave, especially in the storm. The ship literally "pulled" from the crest on the crest, while the side of him "breathed" under the pressure of the waves so that the team at first the hair got up on the end: now they will shrink! Only then the sailors understood that this is not a lack, but the advantage ... And scientists again turned to the ancient chronicles who narrow about ship affairs, and there were mention of the elasticity of the corps. It turns out that the Vikings knew perfectly that it was necessary to build ships of this type. There was also an explanation that they gave the phenomenon that frightened modern sailors: the ship, they say, bend over the waves, like a fish or a seal, and because he moves faster. This explanation is not at all so naive, as it seems at first glance. People understood. It is better to resist the strength to resist non-stupid mechanical strength, but by elasticity and flexibility, by the redistribution of emerging loads ... In the course of further tests, it turned out that the requirements that the sea makes the ship, but the oak, but ash. Oak too cruel; During the running tests, in the conditions of a fierce storm, it happened that the oak parts broke, and the ash was kept. Then they turned to the ancient Annals again and found out that the inhabitants of European coasts, frightened by the attacks of the Vikings, often called the formidable aliens "Ascendans" - "as an ask", "ask" in translation from the ASC. "Askami", according to the same Annals, sometimes called Viking ships themselves. Here you can return to the section Creation of the world and remember that the world tree that joined the nine worlds was a clear, the gods-Assa's first person was also cut out of the ask, and the name was also called. And the courageous warrior in the songs and the sagas called the "ash of the battle" ... and no longer know what came from: a tree from mythology or vice versa ...

Wiking's shipworks of the Wiking times not only well understood from which tree of the tree to do this or that part of the vessel, but also the best way to use this particular tree or part of it. For example, they knew that for the most responsible parts it was better to take wood from the part of the trunk, which during the life of the tree was turned to the north: it received less than the sun and heat, and it means that the wood here turned out to be more fine-layer and dense. In addition, the tree that has grown in a dense, and, it means, all life stretching up, to the light, does not have the lower branches, the fibers of the wood in it are smooth, it became, from such a trunk there can be a wonderful log for a keel or several long smooth boards. Tree open placehaving a thick crown and powerful lower bumps could be separated on the nose board or feed (the boards in these places were to have a natural curvature), or on bars, again with a natural bend, for the splits, stocky and other details, which It is assumed to combine elastic flexibility with considerable strength. Its requirements existed for cheerful, for deck boards, for masts, for blocks, rinks and more many ship parts and accessories. Everywhere used selected wood, and what was not suitable for one, went to another ...
Was much wood left a total of building one ship? Specialists counted: For the construction of a combat ship, twenty-twenty-five meters long, it was necessary to cut down at least eleven trees of the meter thickness with a length of the trunk of about five meters and another fifteen - an eighteen meter - at Kiel. This gave fifty - fifty-eight cubic meters of wood of necessary quality.

It would be, however, the greatest mistake to assume that the choice of wood was determined exclusively by its "consumer" characteristics. Cutting tree, specially "noble", received breed legends, ancient man Perfectly understood that he kills a living creature, having the same rights to life, AK and he himself. Before putting into the turn of the ax, he had a long time before the tree, explaining to him, what urgent need led him to the forest. When it reached the cut, a treat was put on the sideline, "for example, a piece of bread with butter," so that the wooded soul, seduced by a delicacy, left the trunk for a while and did not experience extra torment. In the future, having committed a tree, the man put himself with cleansing rites like those who were accompanied by the murder of the enemy.

In addition, the tree should not have falling the vertex to the north, in which case it was not taken. The fact is that the north was considered the focus of evil forces, there "died" the Sun, there was a dwelling of a cold, death and darkness. Another Scandinavians were suspected to the east. If you look from Norway, there were non-shine mountains with glaciers, landslides and stonepads. It's not by chance that the Norwegian equivalent "went to hell" sounded like "north and in the mountains!". In short, before taking a tree on the construction of a ship, festing the top to the north or east, the ancient Scandinavian would think three times. He was going to trust the ship his life, which means he had to invest in him only the best and bright, kind of gods and obedient man!

Cutting on the boards

Flooring, finally, the tree, it was separated immediately, not leaving to be pulled out. Modern ships prefer a weathered tree, but the ancient masters knew what they did. According to experts, they were guided by two considerations: first, the raw tree is easier to handle, and secondly, when withstanding it dries and can crack. The rotten, as the researchers write, did not threaten the shipboards: the Vikings was built by open-type vessels, with a perfectly ventilated hold.
In the modern industry, the logs are split on the boards with special saws. Vikings came differently: the cooked log split along with the help of wedges for two halves. Then - also once again in half. As experiments have shown, about twenty identical boards of up to thirty centimeters have come from the barrel of the diameter. Primitive technique? Vikings did not know saw? Perfectly knew. And saw and hacksaw.

Simply, as scientists write, modern technology of woodworking is focused on the quantity, and in antiquity, the quality of the corner was set. Especially in such a vital case, as the construction of the ship. The boards obtained from the split wedges of the logs had a number of advantages over the sawn. They are stronger, less susceptible to dryness, not so much and crack. Still, after all, the wedge acts along the fibers, as "more convenient" to the log cabling, and the saw cuts and tears as it fell. Everything else, the crushed boards from one side were somewhat thicker. It is easy to make sure that when connecting onboard boards in Vnakroy (the favorite technique of Vikings), this, at first glance, the disadvantage turned into dignity. A thicker part gave the opportunity to make a cut in it for the most dense adjacent to the neighboring board.

Instruments

Tools for work on the tree used by Vikings in the construction of ships, also became known to scientists mostly after the excavations of the ancient graves. Specialists are unanimous in the fact that the choice of these tools is very wide and in skillful hands sufficient for all necessary operations. Studying found sets, careful consideration of the preserved images, as well as traces left different tools On wooden details, it was allowed to conclude that the most important tool was undoubtedly an ax. They owned the ancient masters truly virtuoso. "Incredible!" - Researchers exclaim, noting that even the final decoration of on-board and deck boards was sometimes ax, although they would have existed and more, it would seem, suitable fixtures: Tesl and a bra blah.

The axes were used by several types, depending on the type of work. On one ancient image, four types of axes were found at once. Trees were alone, the bumps were engaged, the bumps were brought by the third, the boards were finished and the fourth was finalized after the board is adjusted to the housing. Such a addiction to the topor is by no means chance and is not a distinctive feature of the Viking, founded, they say, on the fact that acting a "favorite weapon" - an ax, - in battles, preferred him in peaceful construction ... The fact is that Lochmatite and breaks down the wood fibers, while the ax is, on the contrary, smoothes and plot. Wooden detailAn ax, absorbs moisture much less drinking, which means less rotates and does not serve as an example longer ... For the drilling of the holes, something like a coofer was used: the depotable iron "spoon" on wooden handles With a cross, so that you can rotate. In the go, there were also knives of all kinds of shapes and sizes, chisels and chisels, including semicircular and curly, a variety of cutters, as well as hammers and wooden beasts.

Mastery of ships

Have you used the vikings drawings? No schemes or drawings have not yet been found, but to assert in advance that they were not done at all, it would be mistaken. And suddenly literally at this time do something similar to the Scandinavian Peninsula or in Iceland? We still do that the science has not yet found the answer. Examination of shipbuilding only suggest that the Vikings may have enjoyed a kind of levels allowing to measure the angle of inclination of the plating boards, as well as templates for removing the best divergers.

But what is known exactly exactly, so this is what the masters of the highest qualifications that can even build a radiant and high-speed ship with even "on the eyes". Such a master was accompanied by a whole brigade of various specialists: airds, masters on the dressing of boards, carvers on curly details and blacksmiths, as well as a certain number of utility workers. A boat or a small boat for coastal fishing every self-respecting scandinavdney could build alone, at worst - with an assistant. But when a great man was required to be a large and high-quality combat or shopping ship - invited a good master.

Vikings spent on the ships all their lives and, of course, were excellent in them disassembled. Everyone considered himself a big connoisseur of the ship business, so conflicts between the master and the customer, there were inevitably between different masters. Resolutely everyone "knew, as better," and insisted on their own. Sometimes from the master required short courage, especially if the ship was built for a person high-ranking and also steep and fast on the massacre. However, history indicates that there are enough courage in such masters. For example, an ancient legend about how at the very end of the X century, the famous ship was built for Olav Konung, his famous ship, subsequently called "Great Snake":
"... The builder of the ship was called Torberg Strogal. But many others helped him - who ignited the boards, who was tested who scored nails who brought the forest. Everything in the ship was very carefully done. The ship was long and wide, with a high side and from Large Forest. When the ship was already done, Torbergue needed for some kind of need to go home, and he remained there for a long time. And when he returned, the board of the ship was ready. On the same evening, the konung and Torberg went to see what happened Ship. Everyone said that they never saw such a big and beautiful ship. Then the conken returned to the city. Early in the morning, the next day the konung went to the ship, and with him Torberg. And the masters have already come before, but did not start working. Konung asked why they don't start. They answer that the ship is spoiled: someone walked from the nose to the stern, Ringing the board with oblique blows. The konung approached and saw that it was true. Then he swore, who spoiled the ship from the envy, pays death , if a He will find him. And the one who calls me this person will receive a great reward from me. Then Torberg says:
- I can tell you, konung who did it.
"No konung tells any other person - I could not expect he knows this and can tell me."
"I will tell you, konung," says Torberg, "who did it." I did it.

The conken replies:
- Then you have to do so that everything is like before. Your life depends on this.

And the Torberg approached and fused the side so that all the oblique scars disappeared. The konung and all others began to say that the ship is much more beautiful from the side, overwhelmed Torberg. And the confusion of Velel him to do the same with another side and said he was very grateful to him ... "
Pay attention to one phrase just given a feedback. The board, which was given the best, from the point of view of navigation, the form, became, according to experts, much more beautiful. This is what eye, what experience and flair need to have to determine the quality of the vessel on the nobility of the regulations!

The special "Shikom" of the ancient masters was considered to build a ship in such a way that, going on inlets, he could carry on the boards. The ship with shields along the side was just the same "calling card" of the Viking era, and not in vain. Just do not everyone knows that the shields did not "stick to the bars according to custom," and retained a special rail with an external (or internal) side of the board. The oars were not inserted into the pockets, and the special holes were passed through - "rowing hatches". For the battle, ships usually converged on oars; If at the same time it was possible to keep the shields on board (that is, if the ship was built so that the shields did not overlap the holes for the fun and did not interfere with the row), they until the very moment the hand-to-hand was the additional protection of the rowes.

Side wheel

Viking ships recently built a lot of vehicles. The very first campaign on the recreated copy of the Gokstadsk ship took place in 1893. Since then, such vessels went through all the famous historical routes of the ancient Scandinavians: and around Europe, and in Russian rivers, and to America through the Atlantic Ocean. And even further: enthusiasts made swimming around the world. And in Denmark, every summer is held by the "Wiking Festival", whose program will certainly include "the regatta of the Vikings" - the race at the newcomers of the ancient vessels that are going to the holiday from all over Scandinavia. In short, experience is consistent with a considerable one. And what is characteristic, about the maritime qualities of their ships modern "Vikings" responds invariably in excellent degrees. Moreover, the ship behaves the better, the closer the an ancient pattern is built a replica, the more accurately try to observe every little thing.

One of these "smallest things" was the side steering wheel. Considering the drawings and drawings, it is easy to make sure that the steering wheel of the Viking ships was located not along the axial line of the stern, as we used to, and on the side, on a special mount. And trial modern swimming proves that even with cruel wind and the strongest excitement, just one person with the help of this side steering wheel, without difficulty! However, with all the physical ease of managing the ship, the occupation is very responsible, requires much attention and focus and therefore very tedious. And, given that, unlike the rowers, the feeding could not even warm the rows in the cold and crude night, he tried to relieve life at least that a special seat was arranged on the stern. It was located above ordinary bench, so that the heads of comrades did not obscure the steering overview.

Mast

Viking ship did not look especially "slender." So, at a gokestad ship at the length of the body twenty-three, the height of the mast was, according to scientists, no more than twelve meters; As will be shown below, the fairground area of \u200b\u200bthe sail was achieved mainly due to the width. But many have now know that masts on Viking ships were made .. removable

Normans often used ships during burials. According to them, from the world of living in the world of the dead, it was possible to get after a long journey, as well as overcoming the water barrier (you had enough to go on a straight road and you would have fallen into that world without a doubt). It is for this reason that the Scandinavians were buried the dead, and especially noble people, in ships prepared for a long journey. And therefore many of the famous Viking ships were found in the mounds.

In January 1880, in order to take himself and get rid of boredom (as well as hearing the treasures found in the burials of the Vikings) Sons of a tenant of a small estate in Gokstad (Norway) began to dig a hill, which was the proud name "Royal". In May, the excavation continued, but under the leadership of the Museum archivis in Oslo Nicholassen. So the Hokstad vessel was the man's eyes.

The ship from Gokstad served as a grave (according to the assumptions of scientists and "ingling saga") to the king of Olaf. It was completely equipped with melting paddles, sail, anchor and provinet. On each board there were 16 round shields about a 1m diameter painted in black and yellow. The tomb turned out to be plundered, but, nevertheless, it was possible to find many interesting things. For example, the remains of Peacock were completely unexpectedly found in the stern area.

After restoration, the ship was put up in the Museum of Viking Ships in Oslo.

Main sizes of the vessel:

Maximum length - 23.3 m
Maximum width - 5.2 m
Maximum height - 2.1 m

Discussion from Gokstad is often called the most beautiful of all the wiking vessels found. Many times it was reproduced in replica ships, starting with the "Viking" ("Vikingr" 1892) and ending with the "Mother of the Earth" ("Gaia" 1998) some of them can be found in replica.

This ship was found in 1903 in Norway by Professor G.Gorson. On November 5, 1904, excavations ended, but the adventures of the ship were just beginning. According to Norwegian laws, the ship belonged to the land owner, where it was found. The owner of the assecutor estate appointed the price, but it turned out to be too high for the museum. In the meantime, rumors raised about the possible sale of the vessel abroad. To prevent this, the Norwegian parliament has rush to adopt a law that is paid to the sale of historical values \u200b\u200boutside of Norway. In the end, the vessel was redeemed by the owner of the neighboring manor, and "how it lies there" was given to the museum of Viking ships in Oslo, where now.

First, traces of robbers were found in the tomb. Which, leaving 14 wooden shovels and three stretchers, apparently, fully cleaned the nasal part of the vessel and took all items from noble metals. However, they did not get to the stern, and the archaeologists managed to detect equipped galley with two boilers for cooking, frying pan, spoons, knives, axes and intact manual mill for grinding grain. In addition, the tomb found items intended for women, namely: a large spinning machine and two small suitable for the manufacture of ribbons, wreckage of extended boxes and wooden buckets, remnants of woolen matters and silk ribbons, as well as carpet residues.

It is not surprising that with such a set of objects, scientists have discovered two female skeletons whose age was determined by 50 and 30 years. Older. Probably the Queen Asa. This corresponds to the ingling - saga, in which Snorry Sturdlass in the XIII century. Described the history of Oslo-Fiorhed with Area Ostfoll and Westfollem.

About the fate of Queen Assa Saga says:
"Goodride called the son of Halfdana, who after him became the king. His wife was named Alfhldi. They had a son Olaf. When Alphhild died, Goodrode sent his messengers in Agde (South-Western Norway) to the king, who was ruled there. His named Harald Rotlip . The events had to ask to give His daughter as a king in spouses, but Harald refused them. The chains returned back and told the king about the refusal.

Soon after, Goodrode came out in the sea with a big army and arrived in Agde. The army came completely unexpectedly and landed ashore. At night, it reached the estate of King Harald. When the latter discovered that the enemy stands against him, he went to the enemy with those people who had with him. There was a battle, but were too unequal forces, and Harald and his son Gird died.

The king of Goodride captured greater booty. He took away the daughter of King Harald Asu with him and played a wedding with her. She had a son named Halfdan from him. In the fall, when Halfdana was one year, King Gudred went to feeding in the country. He arrived at his ship in the Shtilazund. There was a big feast, and the king drank greatly. In the evening, when he was dark, he went from the ship. When the king was at the end of a similarity, a man ran up to him, pierced him with his spear, and he died. Man immediately killed. The next morning, when dawn, they found out - it was the servant of Queen Assa. She did not deny that the servant acted on her advice ... After the death of his father, Olaf became King. He suffered from a disease of his feet and died of this. He was buried in a hill in Gyerstad. "

Next is reported. Which soon after the birth of grandson, Haralda beautiful, which in 872 established domination over all Norway, Queen Asa died at the age of 50. Therefore, it is likely that the Queen of Asa is buried in Usnberg, and in Gokstad (in Saga - Giorstad) - the King of Olaf, since there was a skeleton of a chrome man who suffered from gout.

The model of the vessel from Polebed

For the manufacture of the ship was used oak. Along both sides, a special pine plank was made, on which shields could be fixed. In the sides were prevented 15 pairs of jerking holes. Also, the ship had a mast and sail.

The main sizes of the ship:

Maximum length - 21.44 m.
Maximum width - 5.10 m.
Maximum height - 1.58 m.

The vescery vessel testifies to the high level of shipbuilding and normanov navigation. But this ship was still not adapted for swimming in the open sea, such as a vessel from Gokstad.

In 1921, an ancient altar was found in the north of the Danish Island Als in a small peat swamp. As it turned out later, it was an oldest altar in Scandinavia (dating from IV-III centuries BC). Within two years, in 1921-1922, workers of the National Museum of Denmark were excavated. The results exceeded all expectations: 8 single-rigany swords were found (the oldest steel weapon found in Scandinavia), 50 long shields, 140 copies of various shapes, 30 bone pins of copies, wooden plates, boxes, vessels, bronze needle, etc. Among the most interesting finds was the rook, unfortunately damaged during excavations. Those parts of the rook, which managed to maintain, are exhibited at the National Museum of Denmark in Copenhagen.

Rye was made from Linden. In motion, it was driven by wrecks and could carry a team of 25 people (armed and equipped) - about 2200 kg (at the rate of 90 kg per person).

Lord model from Hyerrtshpring

The main sizes of the rook:

Maximum length - 15.3 m
Maximum internal length - 13.28 m
Maximum width - 2.07 m
Maximum height - 0.78 m

Rye from Hyerrtshpring ("Lege of the deer") is one of the progenitors of the classic "Viking vessels". Mention of such ships can be found in the book of Tacitis "Germany", written in 98 AD. There are talking about the tribe of the Svidon, whose trial had nose on each side, thanks to which they could move to any side. In addition, the images of such vessels were found in Bochuslena, in Sweden.

In 1863, the remains of three vessels were found in the village of Esthemsotroup for Alsenzund during the excavation. One of them is quite well preserved, it is about this ship and will be discussed. The ship is exhibited at the Museum of Prehistoric and Early Culture Schlesvail in the castorp castor. It is to refer to the second half of the IV century. When datched, eight bronze pins for clothing were played a significant role - a flibul found on the vessel near the Fortune. Swamp near Nidama, as it turned out, was the victims of victims during almost three centuries. Especially numerous finds were made in 1863 and later, after 30 years, 106 swords were discovered, 552 copies tip, 70 steel and bronze umbon for shields, arrows and copies, and numerous decorations.

The vessel, which has broken so much time in the swamp, broke up. Oak oak plates were alone separately from each other, and only separate parts remained from the splits. Therefore, the reconstruction of this ship is interesting. On the open vessel, 30 places for rowers are provided. The device for serving the sail was absent, and the vessel could not, judging by the stability, carry the sail. The ship is built on a killeboard almost 15 meters and width in the middle of 0.56 meters. Actually, the keel carved from this board has a width of 180 mm, and the height is only 20 mm. In the middle of the killeboard between the 10th and 11th splits, there was a small through hole, closed from the seaside water in a wooden plug, through which the accumulated water descended when the ship was pulled ashore. To the upper board of the sheath, made by Varn, were tied with plugs made of bitch-forks. The holes had holes through which the leather belt held, holding the paddle. To control the vessel on the right side hung a large steering wheel, about 3.3 meters long with a head of a special form. Perhaps he was kept only a cable fixed on one of the spangles and passing from above through a plank, otherwise the steering wheel would be completely free. Found oars had a length from 3.05 to 3.52 meters.

The eaves of the vessel is approximately equal to 3300 (by other assumptions just over 3900) kg. Useful load, i.e. The crew mass of 50 people with weapons and food should be almost 5,000 kg. With a total of 8800 kg, the vessel's sediment was 0.5 m, and the height of the surface side is almost 0.6 m.

Feed tile and steering wheel.

The ship from Nidama refers to the second half of the IV century. When datched, eight bronze pins for clothing were played a significant role - a flibul found on the vessel near the Fortune.

Swamp near Nidama, as it turned out, was the victims of victims during almost three centuries. Especially numerous finds were made in 1863 and later, after 30 years, 106 swords were discovered, 552 copies tip, 70 steel and bronze umbon for shields, arrows and copies, and numerous decorations.

The vessel, laying so much time in the swamp, broke out. Oak oak plates were alone separately from each other, and only separate parts remained from the splits. Therefore, the reconstruction of this vessel, performed by S. Engelgard in 1865, X. Shetelig and F. Johansesen in 1930 and X. Akerlund in 1961, who published their drawings. Of these, the drawing of Johansena is most important. The main dimensions of the vessel from Nidama: the maximum length is 22.85 m, the maximum width is 3.26 m and the height of the side is 1.09 m.

On the open vessel, 30 places for rowers are provided. The device for serving the sail was absent, judging by the stability of the vessel, it could not carry a sail.

The vessel was built on a killeboard with a length of almost 15 m and width in the middle of 0.56 m. Actually keel, carved from this board, has a width of 180 mm, and the height is only 20 mm. In the middle of the killeboard between the 10th and 11th, the swinger was a small through hole, closed from seawater in a wooden plug, through which the accumulated water was descended when the ship was pulled ashore. The tip of the killeboard had a width of only 280 mm. To them with two wooden brazing and horizontal overlays attached from below, fastened the dummy.

Both dubbeds made of oak, almost the same; The well-preserved stem, made of one piece of wood, has a length of about 5.4 m. At the bottom of the sleeve is processed so that it is possible to sharpen the plating boards to it).

The casing is made in Vnakroy - in the clinker: on each side there are five boards. The plates of the sheath are made of oak, do not have bitch and with a length of 20 m and the width of over 0.5 m solid. Only the upper belt is composite. On well-preserved left board, the junction falls between the 13th and 14th splits. The boards are fed to each other at a right angle, and fastens them only a reinforced plank.

The boards overlap each other by 70 mm. Steel rivets with clinks-washers (quadrangular washers) are installed on a killeboard at a distance of 150 mm, on the upper belts - after 160-180 mm, and near the stews - after 110 mm. For sealing slots between the boards, a wool was used, impregnated with adhesive mass.

Kille board, and the other boards had clumps made as one with a board. The clubs are tied 19 spangouts, which were installed only after the completion of the plating assembly. Restoration work has shown that the swarthhums, up to the 3rd, were made of one piece of pine coast (curl) and had a different cross-section. On the top board - only one closer, to which the vaccine is tied; At the same time, this clamp served as a support for the can, attached, probably wooden copper. Rowing banks additionally had vertical supports installed on the splits.

Plugs made from bitch-forks were tied to the top of the shelling board. The holes had holes through which the leather belt held, holding the paddle.

To control the vessel on the right side hung a large handlebar with a length of about 3.3 m with a head of a special form. As the steering wheel connected with the vessel, it is unclear. Perhaps he was kept only a cable fixed on one of the spangles and passing from above through a plank, otherwise the steering wheel was completely free.

Found oars had a length from 3.05 to 3.52 m.

Stones were found on the vessel, which caused bewilderment. Initially, they were accepted for ballast, but he would be needed a ship from Nidam when swimming on water. The ballast of the stones of the total weight of almost 1000 kg on the ship, located on the shore, was clearly superfluous. Therefore, they suggested that the found stones are somehow connected with the sacrifice. Such a vessel was at one time presented very much value, so his burial ceremony was not quite usual. Probably, the vessels were submersible to the boat stretched to the swamp, weapons and other sacrificial gifts were added to them. Then the cords were tied with ropes, with which the vessel was dragged into the swamp, where it was at the opening of the hole on the killeboard under the load stones slowly sank.

The own weight of the vessel from Nidama Johansesen is assessed at 3300 kg, and Timmerman on a model at 1/10 of the natural value is a little more than 3900 kg. Useful load, i.e. the crew mass of 50 people with weapons and food, was supposed to be almost 5,000 kg. With a complete mass of 8800 kg, the vessel's sediment was 0.5 m, and the height of the surface side is almost 0.6 m. The origin of the vessel from Nidam, which represented military prey and found at the place of the settlements of the angles and Saxons, was not fully found.

Why is weapon lies in Lara, not hanging on the wall? You see, I often have guests, and where guests, there and a feast. And on the feast, where a lot of beer, anything can happen! When the weapon is removed from the eye away, the worst thing you can do is knock out a couple of other teeth.
Scandinavia sincecore used spear. This is evidenced by numerous finds dating from the beginning of our era and earlier.

In the era of the Viking, the most common type of weapon was a heavy spear, distinguished from their fellow from other countries. North spear had a native of about five feet long with a long, up to 18 inches, a wide leaf shape tip. Such a spear could also be pricking, and chopped (that the Vikings, in fact, was successfully done). Of course, there was a lot of spear, and therefore it was not easy to reject it, although it happened (if you appeal to myths, one fought with a spear of the Gunnir, always returned to the owner after the throw). You can imagine the physical form of a person who can reject such a spear. However, there were special throwing spears similar to European darts. Such spears were shorter, with a narrower tip.

The form of a spear tip could vary depending on the purpose. For example, there are descriptions of copies resembling European alabard.

The next step is the sequir. A relatively small hatch on a long (about 90 cm) of the handle. Former successful secretion strike, it was usually not required, and therefore the sequir also had a moral effect on the enemy. It was not necessary to have a rich imagination to imagine what the secrei can be expected. On the other hand, the seclira is good when attacking, in protecting her many minuses. Even a Kopeanist is able to disarm the warrior with the secretion, catching it in the place of connecting the blades and handles and pulling out of the hands of the owner.
I want to notice: I almost did not meet the mentions about mutual secrets, so I doubt their distribution (if they existed at all). In popularity, ordinary sequirs do not have to doubt, and not only among simple Hirdmann, but also leaders (hardly the nickname of Eika Haraldsson, the son of the famous Harald Harfagra (beautifully-haired) - Eiclands (bloody ax) appeared on an empty place.

It is believed that one of the factors of the victory of Normans during Hastings was more progressive weapons. The Army Wilhelm was armed with iron sequirs, to that injector, as Anglo-saks came out on the battlefield with stone axes. But, it should be noted, the stone secrets were valued and the Vikings. The reason for this was the age of the weapon, which gave reason to consider it by endowed with magical properties. Such a weapon, carefully persistent, was transmitted from generation to generation.

Perhaps the most common weapon in Europe was a sword. He did not go and Scandinavia.
The first northern swords were similar to the scratus - one-ole-free blades, rather long knives than short swords. However, they soon "grown noticeably", and then turned into a weapon at all, which is now known as the "sword of Vikings".

The Scandinavian sword of the period of the IX-XII B was a long, heavy double-edged blade with a small (hardly a symbolic garard).

Scandinavian battle technique did not differ from the technique of the fight of other nations of Europe of the time. It should be remembered that in the early Middle Ages, and especially in the era of the Vikings of special art fencing did not exist. Wide shuffles, the blow, which was invested all the power of the warrior - that's all the equipment. There were no stitching blows at Vikings, respectively, imposed his imprint on the weapon. Specifically, this was expressed in the roundabout, which was often overhanging the Scandinavian sword.

Vikings always famous for the art of decorating their weapons. What, however, it was not surprising. Scandinavians endowed a weapon with a person, and therefore it is quite logical to try to allocate it from the rest of the weapons. Often, the weapon, a faithful to the host, was given a name, known to people no less than the name of his owner. So there were sonorous names, like "Raunijar" - experiencing, "Gunnloga" - the flame of the battle ... The pieces were laid out with gold and silver patterns, sheath and handles were also decorated with gold and silver, the blades were covered with runes.

One of the most beautiful ways to decorate the swords was the following: in the manufacture of a blade in the handle, alternately copper and silver wire were obsessed, why the sword was obtained by "striped".

Genuine Viking armor were truly Spartan in their simplicity - just look at the helmet of the X century and the remnants of the challenge, found in Gyemundbu, Norway. This round helmet is the only, well-preserved helmet of the Viking era from those found so far; It is known however, the Vikings went into battle and in the helmets of a conical form.

Since time immemorial, landowners of all categories - from the liberated slaves who owned the land of land, to the Yarshis who had huge land, and even the kings who managed their own metals were gathered for local assemblies, known as "Case". There were elected local leaders, made laws and establishments concerning property, theft of sheep or blood revenge. However, in the life of Vikings there was a new force, incomparably more influential than any governing body, and filling this life with a special content.

In the moral code of Vikings, the central place was held by "DrergeSkaPur". This concept includes a number of qualities that were considered mandatory both for society as a whole and for those who could have been playing the hero in the eyes of their compatriots. Self-esteem, honor, impeccable reputation was raised above all, and they could only be constructed on a solid foundation of selfless loyalty to family and comrades. All sides of life were determined by customs; Hospitality and offering, oaths and veds, good deeds for the benefit of society, such as the construction of bridges or temples.

The leaders were obliged to demonstrate the courage. Resistance, loyalty to friends, truthfulness, eloquence and craving for life along with readiness fearlessly and without hesitation to meet death. All these qualities, and countless others, were reflected in the ancient Scandinavian poem "Havlamal", which means "the word of higher" in the literal translation. The poem sets out the entire code of behavior of the Viking era, from ordinary morals to reasoning about the true sense of eternal glory.

The least essential, although necessary, presented the rules for guests. "Who is sitting on a visit, abuses the hospitality of good owners," Havlamal says, "begins to death." If the mentioned guest, in addition, the lick is enough, seduced by the element, the poem reminds that drinking and riding are incompatible: "There is no more gravating knives for a sediction than the unlimited videos." The highest concept of the Code of honor is devoted to the final stuffs of the poems, connecting together an impeccable reputation during life with honorary fate, to fall the death of brave, manifesting himself a hero:

The shield was hardly a mandatory initiation of a warrior at all times. From the ages of the century, from the people to the people, the shields changed the form, structure, appearance, but the appointment did not change them - provide a soldier to a convenient and reliable means of personal protection. Naturally, the Scandinavians, in the life of which war occupied by the last place, did not leave the shields without attention.

From the first to the tenth century, round shields were firmly established in Scandinavia. There were two varieties of such shields - flat and convex. All the shields preserved to this day were set (however, there are evidence of bent shields - in this case it is easier to make convex), that is, assembled from individual boards. To strengthen, such a set could be two-layer, and the layers were overcame across, which again attached strength. In the center of the shield was necessarily attended by Umbon - a metal hemisphere, intended for protection against direct strikes - the enemy weapon sculpted on it, losing force.

In addition to this, Umbon defended his hand, since the most common fastening of the shield on the hand of Scandinavians was a fist fastening. Under Umbon passed the handle for which the warrior and kept the shield. Such a fastening is convenient because the shield is easy to reset, which is important. On the other hand, it is necessary to have a well-trained hand to successfully defend. However, there were shields and with the "traditional" fastening on the hand.

Often along the edge of the shield thickened a strip of thick raw leather, and sometimes it could even be covered with the skin from the front side. Although such shields were never found, the mention of shields, covered with skin, is very often found in the literary sources of that period. As for all the shields found, on them the coloring is applied directly onto a wooden surface.

Traditionally, shields were made from the lime tree, although other wood could also be used, such as alder or poplar. These wood varieties were chosen due to their ease and a small density. In addition, this wood does not like as easily as, for example, oak.

In size, round shields ranged from 45 to 120 centimeters in diameter, but the most common shields were diameter of 75-90 centimeters.

At the beginning of the eleventh century, the lower edge of the shield began to stretch down to protect the legs. Such a change made the beginning of the development of the shield - "drops". Moreover, both their predecessors, round shields, "drops" existed both flat and convex, and the latter clearly prevailed. There are still disputes on attaching such a shield on hand whether it was fist, or not. The fact is that if the shield holds under Umbon, then the bottom, elongated, part of the shield acts as a pendulum, making it difficult to work with a shield.
These shields were about 1 - 1.5 meters.

And round shields, and "drops" could wear in a hiking version, behind the back. For this there was a special belt, or just a wide skin strip. Even walking the warrior so to bear the shield was much more convenient, not to mention the rider.

The shields were painted in different ways, depending on the taste of the owner. The shield could be painted completely in one color or segments. Common drawings were a cross and a sun-solar wheel. In addition, Umbon and reinforcing stripes were often decorated with silver and gold.

This game was known in the north of Europe long before the chess appeared there. In Scandinavia, this game was already known in the III century AD. Subsequently, Vikings brought it to Greenland, Iceland, Wales, Britain, and the Far East, right up to Ukraine.

Options for playing boards.
A straight cross is indicated by the "king", oblique - angular cells.

They played this game on a blackboard with an odd number of cells, from 7x7 to 19x19, depending on the game option. The central cell was called the "throne", and on it, and no figures be able to the corner cells, except the king. At the beginning of the game, the figure of the king was placed on the throne. The rest of the white broke around it. The first move is always for black. Players make moves alternately. All chips move in any direction, as well as rooks in modern chess. The player can move one any chip of his color at any distance. Chips can not "jump" through others. On small boards, chips can pass through the throne, on large it can only do the king. White are trying to hold a king on one of the angular cells. If they manage to put the king on the open straight to one of these cells, they declare "Raichi" (Shah), if at once on two straight - "tuichi" (MAT). If the next move, they get up on the corner square - white wins. If a black player accidentally opens a passage for a white king, white can take advantage of this immediately.

If the chip presses the enemy's chip with its own move and another chip or among themselves and an angular square, the enemy's chip is considered eaten. Most one chip can be eaten at a time.

Black losing both chips
However, you can put your chip between two enemy. In this case, it remains in the game.

White Fishka does not threaten anything. At least. until.

The king is considered captured when it surrounds from four sides. At the same time, the parties can be considered angular cells, throne and side of the board. When the king threatens the danger to be captured by the next move, black warns White (Shah King). Black win, if the king is captured. The king can be captured along with one white china, being surrounded by black on all sides.

In all these cases, black win

White won, spending their king into one of the angular squares. Black - if they managed to capture the king. Since the forces are unequal, a good tone is considered to play two parties in a row by exchanging the parties. In this case, the number of eaten chips is calculated. The winner, with the score of 1: 1, the one who ate more enemy chips is considered.

Kitchen Viking
"Porridge"

The basis of the recipe: a glass of grains and two glasses of liquid (water and / or milk) per person. You can add more fluid in order to compensate for evaporation that occurs in the case of cooking porridge on "open" fire. You can use SCH and crushed grains, the largest kernels need to soak overnight, otherwise they will have to be prepared for too long.
Recipe: Porridge for the Viking Family.
For 4-6 servings, take:
- 10-15 glasses of water
- Two glasses of "chopped" grains of wheat. Pre-try them overnight so that they are not so difficult to chew
- two glasses of barley
- Full handful of wheat flour
- Handful of crushed nuclei of nuts
- 3-4 tablespoons of honey
- Good portion of bakes of apples, pears or ...

1. Place wheat, flour and barley in the boiler. Fill out 10 glasses of water and put the boiler on fire.
2. Still evenly porridge and remove the boiler to dispel the heat. If porridge begins too thick, add more water to it.
3. After about half an hour, add honey, nuts and fruits. Now porridge should be boiled until the fruit is still juicy, and porridge has already reached the right consistency. It will take 15-30 minutes.
4. Serve porridge should be warm, adding cold cream if desired.

"Meat and fish pussy"

Of course, you should not shove all the well-known vegetables, herbs and seasonings in one boiler. Inspired by many large-available books that are dedicated to edible plants, you should not use everything that you find by waging around the surroundings. Always make sure that you are edible plants in your basket!
Recipe: meat chowder.
For 4-6 servings, take:
- 8-12 water glasses
- Sheltered meat (pork, beef, lamb, chicken, game)
- Sol
- 3-5 cups of plants: Upper leaves of nettle, leaves of a young dandelion, wild-growing kerwell, Cress Salad, Warranty Mayran, Dill, Plantain, Dyagil, Wild Onions, Timen, Thyme, or something else that can offer nature at this time of the year

1. Put meat into the bowler. Pour water there before such a level to close the meat, and put the boiler on the fire. To dispel the heat, it is necessary every 5-10 minutes to remove it from fire for short periods of time.
2. After the water boils, it is necessary to prepare meat for another hour. It is necessary to ensure that the meat is always covered by a water layer.
3. At the time when the meat is prepared, rinse and distortions (greens). They will need to add to the chowder when it will be ready.
4. When the meat boils (it becomes soft), get it out of the boiler and cut into pieces with a spoon size, which is planning to eat. Then return the meat to the bowler.
5. Add salts as desired and can be served on the table.
6. Summer can be served with loaf. If you want to prepare more nourishing chowel, you can add pre-confined wheat grains, a flour of coarse grinding, or a chowder can be twisted with pea flour

"Bread from coarse grinding"

This bread is called a "pottery" because it jammed on pieces of ceramic products or, if the estate was cooled, 10-15 centimeter skille over coals. Recipe: Breads.
All dimensions are given in glasses. A glass in this case is equal to about 90 grams of flour:
- 7 Glasses of wheat flour of coarse grinding or top grade
- 3 glasses of liquid - it may be dairy serum or milk
- 1 egg
- pinch of salt (optional)

1. Flour, liquid, egg and salt must be mixed long and carefully. If necessary - add flour or liquid. As a result, a homogeneous thick dough should be.
2. Divide the dough into small balls, and then turn them into cakes. 3. Bread bakes on high heat on the debris of ceramic products or a pan for 2-3 minutes each side.
The resulting loaves should be slightly brown, and if they slightly knock on them, should make the impression of hollowness.
To obtain a "fragments", you can use well-burned pots of red clay (apparently, such as those used for the furnace) or, for example, a ceramic vase of the Japanese school Sogetsu ...
- Sweetened loaves can be obtained by adding honey to the dough.
- Adding roasted burning nettle will give spicy taste.
- You can also add chopped nuclear nuts and boiled acorn in the dough.

Hot nutritional drinks.

"Delicious Apple Drink"

For cooking we need:
- Water
- Solk apple
- Apple tree leaves
- Honey

1. Fill the container with water, throw the slices of crude apples there, add the leaves of the apple tree.
2. Drink should be boiled on fire. When it starts to boil, add honey to taste.
3. Serve hot. Apples can be replaced with pears. Berries will give taste. If there is a desire, try various mixtures of berries and fruits.

"Drink from plants"

Drinks from plants can be obtained from many plants. The drink is prepared by adding boiling water and boiling for several minutes of leaves or plants.
The best drinks can be obtained from leaves:
- burda nettle;
- mint;
- Hawthorn;
- wild raspberry;
- strawberries; and colors:
- elder;
- Linden;
- Yarrow;
- Chamomile.

Housekeeping in Era Vikings

"The daily life of the Viking family day after day, from year to year was a continuous struggle for the sake of maintaining life: so that everyone had a roof over his head; everything was warm and it was, what to eat. For a long time it was easy to get food, But a lot of time was spent to cook it, and it was still necessary to take care of a long winter in advance: to collect, gear and stored food.

We definitely do not know what our disadvantages are preparing at the time of Vikings, but we can argue about what components and dishes they used to cook. Until our times, many dishes, boilers, knives and other kitchen utensils came. With a careful study of clay pots, ceramic covers, ash from home foci and layers of land in homes, there is an opportunity to find residues of food and determine the source of their origin. In addition, it should be said that some of the people found in the swamps are so well preserved that they can be studied their stomachs and intestines for what the last meal consisted of them. We can also confidently say which plants and wild animals existed in Scandinavia the times of Vikings, and at the same time to present that most of these representatives of flora and fauna were part of the Viking diet, provided that the latter could get the first.

Food components

The most important of the grown grain crops was grain. Barley, wheat, rye and buckwheat were also among the grown plants. Viking grain era looked somewhat different than now - they had more stems and less grains themselves. The grain in those days grew just as well as now, and, accordingly, it became that food that is easily worse than the winter. It is not difficult to see - it is easy to show that the Vikings picked grain / flour into most dishes: in porridge, soup and to meat and, that will seem the strangest to you, in bread.
Places grown and vegetables. Separate comrades raised green peas, horse beans (Horse Beans), garlic, Dyagil, Hop, Pasternak and carrots. Eggs, milk, meat and fat for everyday cooking prepared from birds and cattle, the same thing that is bred now. Only they were lambed - well, they did not flourish among the Vikings of the movement of young Michurinsev, not before that they were !!! The meat of pets was not included in the daily diet, so fish, poultry eggs and game were welcomed as a supplement to the caress.

In the Epoch of Vikings, most of the country was covered with dubrava, spruce and beech thickets. Therefore, Wiking women collected seeds, berries with shrubs, forest nuts, mushrooms and even acorns for their "chryaks". After a long winter, the attribute of which was the eating of grain crops, the soldiers wanted vitamins, fresh vegetables, but where would they take them in the spring? Do not be surprised, the Vikings laid on the grass! No, no hemp - on the fields and meadows it was possible to get fresh roots and ferns of different. True, it is not known how much the nature of the body filling in vitamins was common.

Using clay pots for cooking on open fire

And here the fire is deselected, and the pot is put on it so that the handles do not concern the flame. The clay does not hold warmly, and therefore it is necessary to constantly move it to the pot evenly warmed up. I note that heating is not coming from the bottom to the edges as in the iron dishes: only those parts are heated on which the fire directly affects, so in these places the food prepared can be burned!

A wooden spoon can be calmly left in a pot (only so that it does not get fire) at that time, while food is slowly pissed, and it must be stirred regularly. But do not leave a spoon hanging the pot - she's not a place there! The pot must be filled with food at least half, otherwise it can crack due to the difference in the temperature between the bottom and the edges of the pot. If you need to escape food - do it immediately before serving on the table. If the salt is added in the cooking process, it will destroy the pot and make it porous and fragile. Hot stones for cooking (for boiling water, some kind of tea or soup) need to be folded in the water neatly using wet wooden tongs or ceramic shards.

Fixtures for cooking and kitchen utensils

The fireshop, homely focus in combination with an iron cauldron or a clay pot was the most important devices in the era of the Vikings. It was in them that were preparing lunches from what was at the family at that time. In addition to the hearth, there was sometimes a pit in front of him, in which meat and fish were preparing over coals taken from the hearth. The iron spit was also in the go, however, much proves that most of the food of that era was cooked.

Water or soup could be heated using small stones heated on fire - "Stones for cooking". If they are placed in the liquid, they quickly give warm and cool, after which the stones are covered and placed in the fire. After several uses, the stones began to crumble, and they were thrown. These stones heated on fire in a set were found surrounded by the houses of the Viking era, in the foci and about them in the pits for frying. By the way, you should not make stones for cooking from flint - it will explode directly on fire.

Clay pots were used for many purposes, and mainly served for storage and cooking. It is worth noting that in the kitchen used spoons and scales from wood and bones and iron knives. Forks were used only in the case of cooking in big boilers - To learn pieces of meat. Large ceramic shards were used to straw ashes, get stones for cooking or baking loaf.

The grinding and complex work was the grinding of grain in the millstones, which in the Iron Age replaced primitive presses. Strength and patience were necessary in order to grind the grain in flour.

Women Vikings

Just like everyone, men and women of the Viking era needed major things for life: food, clothing and house. Pets played an important role in their everyday life. Perhaps the most important animal for them was a horse. Viking's view on the world passed through their daily life with red thread, and the law said that you can do, and why it is impossible. It was a dull life for the sake of only the process of life. Although, the Vikings played the games, enjoyed music, poetry, sports and crafts: wood carving and work with metal.

Vikings lived in large family groups. Children, fathers and grandfathers lived together. When the eldest son took over the farm, he simultaneously became the head of the family and responsible for her well-being. He needed to extract so much food as the family was needed. His wife - the mistress of the estate - had to closely make sure to be styled food to eat for long and dark winters. She did oil and cheese, dried and smoked meat and fish for further storage and should also deal with herbs to make medicines for patients and wounded. Domestic cattle was responsible to the hostess, and when her husband flooded with a raid or trade, went hunting, - the woman remained the main thing in the manor. In a rich family, she had servants and slaves for work on the house. The visible sign of the authority of the hostess was the keys to the storerooms on her waist. When men went into long trips, fishing or hunted, women remained the main in the manor. This led to the fact that they played an important role in society.

Marriage

The girl was married at the age of 12-15. At this age, she could already be engaged in the economy in the manor. But, nevertheless, hoped for the help of senior women in the family. The wedding was agreed between families and was viewed as an alliance between two families with mutual help and protection. The girl herself did not have anything to say anything.

Dowry

The bride brought in a family of a husband from flax and wool, spinning wheel, tools for textile and a bed as part of the dowry. The girl from a richer family could have part of the dowry decoration of silver and gold, livestock, farm, or even a whole estate. Everything she brought with you, further was her property, and did not become part of the estate of her husband. Her children could get this property in the order of age inheritance.

Divorce

After marriage, the woman did not fully become part of the family of her husband. She remained part of her own family, and if her husband had poorly addressed her or children, if the father of the family was too lazy in order to feed the family or if he had offended his wife's family, then a divorce followed something. To this end, a woman had to invite a few "understood" and in their presence first approach the main entrance and from him to the bed of a couple and proclaim themselves divorced with her husband.

Children

Kids I. chest babies After the divorce, they automatically remained with the mother. Older children were divided between the families of the spouses, depending on their well-being. Possessing property rights, inheritance and divorce Wiking women were more free than most of their faces from Europe of the time.

Women out of poor families

On small farms there were no clear division of labor between a man and a woman. Without servants and slaves, everyone had to sacrifice what they could in the name of the survival of the family in the conditions of the harsh Scandinavian climate.

Slave

The slaves did not have any rights, except for the right to be the property of its owner. They could buy and sell, the owner or hostess could do everything with slaves everything they could have begun. The owner could kill one of his slaves, and this was not considered by the public as a murder. If any other free person killed someone's slave, he was enough to refund the owner the cost of the deceased in compensation. The price was approximately equal to the cost of the head of horned livestock. When the slave gave birth to a child, he automatically became the owner's property. If the slave was sold pregnant, the newborn became the property of the new owner.

Tinggi and their shared features in various countries of Scandinavia

In the XI century, the Bishop Rimbert in the biographical work "Life of St. Ansgar", speaking of the Scandinavians, notes that "... They have a custom that any social matter more depends on the unanimous will of the people than from the royal power." And although this source is dedicated mainly to Sweden, the above quote can be attributed to all the Scandinavian peoples of that time.

The development of the Scandinavian countries went different ways. If in Norway in the x in. The efforts of Konung Harald Beautiful-haired already appeared a rather extensive state with a strong centralized power, then on the island of Gotland, for example, there was a complete internal self-government, although the Gothantians were subordinated to the Swedish Conunda; As for Iceland, until the middle of the XIII B - i.e. Prior to the subordination of Norway - it is the brightest example of ting-based self-government. However, despite this difference in the state structure, in all these regions, Tinggi continued to play an important role for a long time.

The reason for such a prevalence of ting practices is quite simple. Only in the 9th century the first Scandinavian states appear; Before that, Scandinavia was rather homogeneous even in the language, not to mention the organization, and was managed mainly by tingles - an ancient form of self-government.

Tinging organizations of the Scandinavian countries were similar to each other and often served as a reflection of administrative division. Thus, the following types of Ting were existed on Gotland: Ting Hunderi (Ting Hundreds), Ting Setung (Ting in the same sixth), Ting of Triedung (Ting Third); The Supreme Body of the Gotland self-government was the alttention (Ting of the entire Island), which concentrated in itself all the power on the island with all its aspects: court, taxes, military affairs, external and domestic policy, legislation. It is characteristic that the higher the Ting was, the big penalties he could collect for violations (setung - no more than 3-grades, three rods - 6, the altting - 12 brands). In Iceland, there was a quarter division in Iceland: each quarter combined three tingle districts with local tingles, and all quarters made up the alternation on which laws were made and a court was made for all cases that could not be resolved by local tingles. Sources indicate the existence of a similar system and in Norway, where the universal Ting was called the gulating. In Gulatting, the court was carried out by 36 judges: "Twelve from Fühdir (district), twelve from Fühn Soghn and Twelve from Fühlka Hardaland."

Both local and universal tingi had a number of general devils in the organization and conduct. "Saga about Egil" gives us short description Gulatting: "The venue of the court was a flat place, surrounded by milestones from Oheshnik. There was a rope between the milestones. She was called the border of the court. And the judges were sitting in the circle .... these judges were disassembered." As a rule, the site of Ting was quite a large space, often with an elevation with which it was convenient to talk before large quantity of people. In Icelandic sagas, the rock of the law is mentioned, with which the charges were declared and the claimant's speeches and the defendant were pronounced on Alting; In addition, there are mentions of various other toponyms (for example, gorge of gorge), which gives reason to believe that the alttention occupied quite a large space. Each group of participants in Ting, or even separately the family had their dugout (in the "egile" - tent), which speaks both the duration of Alting and the invariance of its place. Local tinggis were most likely not so long.

The course of the trial in the Ting and its features

As the chapter "About the title" "Gutalag", almost any tingi should begin not later than noon - "... the courts are sent and the oaths are accepted not later than the sunset." Apparently, these were customs not only in Gotland, since the night was usually associated with scandins with dark, unkind cases. As for the form of a court, the sources, including laws, are mainly talking about the murder processes, limiting themselves to the other cases by specifying the amount of the fine. However, it is not surprising that it is murder that such attention is paid. Very long in the Scandinavian countries there was a custom of revenge when the victim preferred to take the life of the offender instead of his money, and often not paying attention to the decisions of Ting. In "Saga about Nyal", for example, it is told about the hostility of two births, stretching the bloody rims of the murders in a few years, despite the fact that every killed both fence was paid to the virgin, hoping that the neighbors would be satisfied with this. In an effort to prevent such cases, laws establish a strict procedure for calling the defendant to Ting, the appointment of witnesses, etc. Failure to comply with these rules (and even more so independent russell) could lead to the fact that the plaintiff himself risked to be in the defendant position. "Gutalag" gives us a striking example of such a law: this is the chapter "On the murder of a man." It refers to the so-called "circle of the world", which can hold a person who committed a murder, and who gives him immunity to court; The same integrity gives the church and the priest's house.

Following "Westghallagu," was allowed immediate revenge for murder. The heirs of the murdered had the right immediately, "on his tracks," borrow the killer. Then put one person against the other, and no fines were to pay any of the parties. If there was no immediate revenge, the killer was supposed to immediately declare the murder on the nearest ting; If he did not do this, the heir could have achieved immediate deprivation of the world (outlawed ads). But if the murder was announced, the case was excited only on the third on the Ting after the murder, because Before that, the killer could agree with the victim, paying the virgin. In the third Ting, the heir was to initiate the accusation; If the killers were somewhat, he had the right to blame for up to six people, denoting them as partners, advisers and those present. After that, Ting appointed RUN - as they suggest, a fixed day for the hearing of the case (in the same meaning of the Endag is mentioned in Norwegian sources). On Augusta, the heir to the oath should have introduced six test witnesses to confirm his accusation and blame the killer already, so to speak, in the face: "You sent the edge into him, and you are his true killer." In the next tit, wearing the name Segnarting, the heir should have confirmed that he had fulfilled everything that was prescribed by law, and then should have taken a sentence and award the killer to deprivation of the world. Even at this stage, the killer had a chance to negotiate with the heir to pay the viruses. All participants in the crime, in addition who were marked as the killer, had the right to defend themselves against the accusation.

In "Saga about Nyal" there is a detailed description of such a litigation, so it makes sense to trace the course of the court on this source to notice characteristics Processes in Ting - especially since Tinggi was obtained in Iceland, perhaps the greatest development.

At first, the plaintiff should have declared the accusation of the murder of the nine nearest neighbors of the murder's place - they became witnessing the charges. In the title, the plaintiff (or the person who plaintiff for one reason or another with witnesses conveyed to keep doing business) brought the oath that it would be honestly to deal, and announced the accusation. By the way, the accusations for all cases were presented in one day, so on the alternations it often left the whole day. Only after the charge of all cases began the courts.

I urge you to witnesses that I accuse (the name of the defendant) is that he inflicted (the name of the dead) wound internally or bones, which was deadly and from which (killed) died on the spot, where (accused) illegally attacked on ( killed). I say that he should be declared outside the law * and expelled, and no one should give him food and provide him with any help. I say that he must lose all good and half of it should move away to me, and the other half - to those people from a quarter who have the right to good declared out of law. I declare this quarter of a quarter, in which, according to the law, this accusation should be considered. I declare this by law. I declare it from the cliff of the law so that everyone heard. I declare that (the accused) should be judged this summer and declared outside the law.

* In this case, the plaintiff requires the most severe punishment - expulsion and announcement outside the law, after which, in fact, the accused in the country could kill anyone without a threat of court. As sources show, such sentences were quite rare, because The court took into account the defendant's arguments

The remaining wording, starting by the announcement of witnesses and ending with the verdict. And the abundance of such difficulties could not not affect the course. The party against which the charges were made, in every way tried to find fault with the slightest inaccuracy in the speech of the plaintiff and on this basis to declare insolvent in this foundation - this was considered legal. Therefore, for example, in the same "Saga about Nyal", the plaintiff additionally clarifies:
- I urge you to witness what I bind myself from my business to be announced illegal if I correctly pronounce or make a reservation. I reserve the right to correct all my words as long as I do not set my job correctly. I urge you to witnesses for yourself or for others to whom this testimony will need or profitable.

Witnesses of charges and judges gave oath, after which the witnesses confirmed that the accusation was announced correctly. Then the same witnesses had to make a decision on the case. However, unlike the "Gutalag", in Icelandic alttention, the killer in any case had the right to defense. So, he had the right to take the "unauthorized" neighbors, that is, people who were related to the plaintiff and the former, thus interested in the sentence. Neversable also considered neighbors, "sitting not on their land", i.e. not owned land ownership. In this case, it was possible to initiate a control in incorrect jurisdiction, because According to the law, it followed that the decision should be made nine people. However, as "Saga about Nyal" shows, if most of the neighbors remained, they could still make a decision, and the plaintiff paid a penalty for all missing; The accusation of incorrect jurisdiction was considered already in the next Ting.

Do not, of course, think that the final sentence was taken by the neighbors of the plaintiff. The neighbors only announced their decision to the judges, followed by the last word. In this regard, perhaps, it is necessary to pay attention to the judges of the Ting.

Until the XII-XIII centuries in Scandinavia, there were practically no written laws and all provisions needed to memorize. It was the responsibility of Lagmans, "Guardians of the Laws", in Sweden and Norway, and the voltage in Iceland. They were most often the judges or could give advice in the case of a confusing case, even if they did not participate in the court. As reading "Westhelalalag", "... Lagman must be the son of Bond", i.e. Freeborn human owned land. It also says that Landsting, the Ting of the entire district, gained its authority only if Lagman was present - it was a guarantee that the laws would be observed. Apparently, the reinforced establishments operated in the territory of the region. In Icelandic sagas, they speak with great respect. The presence of such a person on its side while custody often meant success or failure of all things. Therefore, the company should have been absolutely neutral, the declination of them to their side with the help of money or gifts during Ting was illegal.

However, Lagmanns were not so much to deal with all the affairs, especially on the alternations, therefore the bulk of the judges was the bonds that actually have a peculiar administrative function. In Iceland, they were called GoGi. This name, which also denoted the pagan priest, spreading the spiritual power to his region - a year - preserved in Iceland and after the adoption of Christianity. From the Godords, the courts of quarters were formed, three dozen judges in every quarter. These judges not only have ended the decision, but also ensured that the procedure for doing the case was observed. Sometimes during the court to make a final decision, each Party prescribed six judges who were together and solved the case. The same order is described in the Norwegian "Nyal".

In the "Saga about Nyal", the defense managed to schit. Immediately after the announcement of the accusation, the accused (who, by the way, speaking a serious crime), urgently moved to a one-year-old thing, after which the litigation was arranged invalid, because It should be started in court another quarter. This gave grounds for initiating the accusation of improper jurisdiction, which was transferred to the fifth court.
The fifth court is a body that has taken place, apparently, only in Iceland, and showing that Ting as a legal instance has completed to develop. In the same "Saga about Nyal", it is described that Nonya, the former one of the best connoisseurs of laws, proposed a scaffle, the main ruler of Iceland in 1004 g, to arrange another court, in addition to the four courts of quarters, which Rabiral would be "... All sorts of disorder in the ting, on false witness and incorrect readings, ... about those who gave bribes .. ", as well as" .. Thened affairs on which the judges in the courts could not come to consent. " Such cases, judging by the complexity of the process of the court, was enough. New Godords were established for the new court, and the best connoisseurs of laws in the fourth were established to the court, at twelve from a quarter. In order for the legitimate number of judges to thirty-six to be broken, each side before discussing the decision was to withdraw from the court for six judges. At the same time, the defender could not divert his judges, then the plaintiff had to withdraw all twelve. It is characteristic that even this item could strongly affect the outcome of the case. In "Saga about Nyal", the case is described when the accusatory party, having all evidence and evidence in his hands, did not bring the right amount Judges (who even sentenced) and because of this lost the case.

Thus, as can be seen from the above examples, the tingle proceedings were quite developed. However, it is impossible not to notice that the intention to limit the ancient custom of blood revenge in every way legal measures provided participants in the process of a mass of reasons for "hookers" (an interesting example is given in the "saga about the Korehfankle Godi" - the accused could not take the accusation only because For the crowd I did not hear the speech of the prosecutor). It was not possible to solve the problem of the power resolution of disputes.

The ratio of force and the right to ting

Despite the desire to solve disputes by legal means, old customs, especially in Iceland, were still too strong. However, even in the united Norway, Konung Harald had occasions when litigation was solved, for example, a fight. In particular, "Saga about Egil" tells about the property litigation between the two bonds, and while the court walked his man - witnesses were brought, the oaths were brought - one of them, Egil himself, said:
- I do not need oaths instead of property. I offer another law, namely, fight here, in Ting, and let him get good who will win.
The proposal of Egil was legitimate, and ordinary in previous times. Everyone then had the right to call another to fight, be it the defendant or the plaintiff.

The same custom can be traced according to other sources. So, in the "Gutalag" in the chapter "On the Ting world" it says that any violation of the world of Ting is strictly persecuted, be it a fist and, of course, the murder, but "... In addition to the case, when a person was killed from revenge." "Westghalalag", in turn, in general, equates the murder in the ting to "atrocity", that is, to a crime, not a redeemed fine. In such cases, a person was expelled from the country.

Speaking about Norway, it is necessary to affect such an important problem as the relationship between ting and the centralized power, which was found to be started in the IX in the efforts of Konong Harald beautiful. "Saga about Egil" shows that Konung observed customs, tried not to interfere with the course of the court and did not even have a weapon (although, of course, a completely ready friend was in his parking lot). Nevertheless, now both parties have already appealed not to the judges, but to Konong. It is even more significant that judges before listening to certificates in the case are asked by Konong, whether he will not listen to them. Finally, when the case was touched by one of Konung's relatives (and everything was not enough in favor of a relative), his warriors "... ran to the venue of the court, broke naked mileters, destroyed the ropes between them and dispersed the judges. In the ting rose a strong noise, but All people were without weapons there. " Thus, the conken felt its strength and, if necessary, made it clear that the authorities belong was not ting. At the same time, he kept the institute of Ting, because first, they took on an important judicial function, and secondly, they were an old and familiar tradition, whose layer could restore against the conjune of too many.

A somewhat different situation was in Sweden, which can be judged by "Westghallag", the law written in the XIII century. Although by this time, Sweden was already formally a single kingdom, in fact he was two federations: Svealand and Gothaland, who, in turn, were divided into many lands - Lands. Therefore, Tinggi here had more independence from the konong. So, in "Westgelalag" it says that if the conken wants to exercise the court, he must appoint a commission. In the ting, the elected Lagman always judges.

Speaking about Iceland, one should first outline some features characteristic of this island at that time. The active settlement of Iceland is primarily associated with the activities of the same Harald beautiful, although it began, as they suggest. "Saga about Egil" says:
Konung Harald appropriated in every Fulka hereditary possessions and all the land, populated and unoccupied, as well as the sea and water. All the bonds had to become dependent on him holders of the Earth ... He forced everyone to choose one of two - or go to his service, or leave the country ... Lesorba and Solerera, fishermen and hunters - they were also obliged to obey him. From this blowing, many fled from the country, and then many extensive, still empty land were populated ... At the same time, Iceland was open at the same time ...

In Iceland, there was no centralized power, because First of all, the people who were not satisfied with such power there. Therefore, this country remained the territories of free bond communities, former owners in their homes, and who did not know other laws, except for ting orders. However, here were their nuances. The richest farms, as a rule, had greater support in their disputes in Ting; The same can be said about people who are clothed with the power of God. In the already mentioned "saga about Kurtheckle Godi" talks about Bond, who entered into litigation with a very influential person - the gods themselves - and tried to find support from other influential people:

But all say one thing: no one considers himself so indebted to the right * to enter into a litigation with the gods, and thereby put the dangers of his kind name. They are still added that almost everyone who traveled with the Korefankel in Ting, was waiting for one fate: all their saucels forced to quit the case, which they stood against him ...

* Bond name
And even after he himself was still able to find support and even achieve the announcement of the announcement outside the law, Goi comes home and "... lives as if nothing has happened."
Often, the revenge was still carried out (such examples in Icelandic sagas), despite the decision of the ting - or, on the contrary, because of his solutions. Extremely interesting is an example of litigation described in "Saga about Nyal". When, due to the formal mistakes, the accusatory side lost the case, all her supporters took the weapon and right in the ting, began to kill opponents who answered them the same. Only the next day, thanks to the appeal of all the judges and the efforts of all neutral participants in Ting, the warring parties came up.
It was decided to transfer the case of the twelve judges, and in the sign of this, everyone filed a friend's hands ... Murders from two sides were equated to each other, and for those that were over this, Vira was laid ...

Scaldy

Scalds in Scandinavia called poets. Good Scalids, with ease of folding viscos and Nida, were very highly valued and used respected by Normannov. And not just like that. Another one in the "speeches high" said that the runes are given to people with the gods and filled with magic. A man just knew all twenty-five runes, already owned a considerable magic force. What then talk about scalds to which the runes served as a tool for work?

Rarely, someone from Konongov (not to mention simple bonds) allowed himself to offend Scalid, because he could revenge. And not a sword or secircuit, but in a niday, a blowing verse. After such revenge from the offender, luck could have turned away (and what could be worse?), He could get sick and even die, especially if Scald was really "having tasted Kvashir's blood," aces often listened to such. The sauma describes the case when the conong brutally insulted Scald. He immediately answered, folding Nida. Konung as a result fell ill and did not heal anything from the disease. He had to send him for the same scaldom and numerous gifts to ask him for forgiveness.

The second "type of activity" of Scaldov was the Visuions - Slavor, generously rewarded by listeners. For a good Wisque Scald could get anything: from a ring, rich raincoat or secure, lined with silver, to the ship, loaded with gold.

But, no matter how tempting it did not sound, not everyone could become Scald. For this, a special gift was required, and who was familiar with the Scandinavian poetry, I will understand me. Scald was obliged to put kennings, thanks to which Scandinavian poetry has that unique (albeit a few peculiar) beauty and "aroma".

Saga about Harald and Troll

Harald Yarl
Hike collected
His most faithful people.

They are armed
And Usadil
In fourteen strong led fed.

Harald Yarl
Friend said:
"I am invincible with you!

We are with you, as before
Let's go through the coast
Leaving the fire only and smoke! "

The squad screamed
Swords knocked
Attracting the attention of the gods.

And everyone was tall,
Sinegylase, blonde,
And everyone's helmets are without horns!

Scalids are sanguous
About tig blizzards
Good luck to the crown of Suluya,

Oars flashed
Splashes sparkled,
Sripped the boards of the ship ...

And was this year
Good trip,
They found a lot of prey.

Widow fighting
Blood washed
Touch the Roda Earth.

Purscessing with the weapon
Helmets half-breed,
Hugged their favorite.

All the same rosa
Sinegylase, blondes,
But there was no Yarl to the medium.

"As soon as we left Fjord,
Trollena vile muzzle
It climbed on us out of the water.

We dreamed of secrets and onions,
And Misolnir called out of the torus,
And the troll nor there or here!

Troll to meet - bad sign,
Since childhood, we all know perfectly about it,
But the Yarl turn did not dare.

He shouted only: "One! Look at it!
Now I will rip the enemy to the cutlets! "
Waving the ax, overboard fell.

Burled water, and foam boil -
Then harald our troll fought skillfully,
Scald swallowed beer, and everyone silenced.

"And that battle lasted. Probably an hour,
When the water finally lay down,
Only the shield of the painted wave swing ...

Neither Troll, nor the Yarla - this was the final! "
Scald summing up, shook his head.

People, envy the fame of the mining,
Remember the troll, the Yarus thugged!
Trolls, and you, going to the sea,
Remember the Yarla, Killer Troll!

Unhappy Viking Saga

I'm lying, staring in the stars,
Indulging longing and sadness.
I would have wanted early Il late,
If the waves were not swing so much.

Sail with the wind is washed in shreds,
All the provisions sloped mice,
And the day leans by night
And the waves become higher.

My dragon named "Raven"
Loud moaning, but not surrender.
But I know for sure that soon
Water marine he is widged.

I'm omitted to the bottom with him
Having alone with weak handles,
I will sing the fish to the fishes,
Yes, in the brand, I will play with crabs.

There will be scalids beautiful songs
About brave Helgs and Eiriks,
About the ship that "Titan" decided to call
I did not manage to get to the shore.

Well, I may be wrapped,
The smell of cheese is inhaling the chest free,
And I will tell you: "What is the troll!
(Here I hit my mast painfully!).

I will say: "I managed, I wooked!
You are from joy crying vyznevd! "
I hear the splash - knocking out of the forces,
Behind the shark is circling.

I will let go, probably beard,
Turn it into two braids
Stick in her, in case of hunger,
There will be bread and pieces of sausages.

I will kill that jar
We said that there will be the Earth.
And I leave after that in the mountains -
Next to the sea, I will not survive.

No, not in the mountains, there may be trolls,
I'm afraid of trolls since childhood.
If there is one will,
I am with the proximity of the sea

Saga on Leife Bardsson and Trollin

Western fjord was typing dark
Between him and the long grocery of the mountains,
Storing silence and sleepy peace
In the valley stood Leif Bardsson Yard.

From the mountains in the Valley of Trollin descended
And on the grass, washed rain,
She rushed to the house of Leif
Touching at night, as if a cloak.

Singfully submits to the dwelling of people,
Trollin near the door sat down.
"Get out, Leif, my cute, more likely!"
Eyes from timidity hiding, sang.

"I have been watching for you for you
You struck me in my heart.
I am without you, as if Iceberg, I will grow up
And no world without you I do not!

Twelve mills will become yours,
I made their wings golden,
And millstone from fire copper!

Yours will be this magic blade,
Envy him, enemies run from all legs,
He will lead to victory!

Twelve acceptance of acceptance as a gift from me,
So that they surpassed them, no horse in the world,
Grounding their wobbly country alves!

I'll give you a shirt
Not ashamed to wear so and king
From the silk of the finest sewn she!

I ask you, Leif, dear, give me the answer,
Ile what else do you need from me?
I only answer me only "yes" or "no",
Tell me, do you agree to become my husband?

"I would take your gifts,
If you were a man.
But you are the Mountain Mistress,
Your year for people will be a century!

Answered Leif, looking to the east,
Where, young and clean,
Norwegian mortar hegery
The sun was rainy.

"Ah, no, I died! Why I came!
And blood is already in the veins ... "
Here the sun touched her; Only a cliff
Recognized poor trollin.

That cliff is still
In the valley that proudly named trolls,
Lying behind the long chain of the mountains
Next to Western Fjord.

Saga about konung and beer

Was a great feast
In Konong in the house
All having fun
KOVONA except.

Eyebrows frowning
I looked from the brain.
About beer surplus
Spoke red nose.

Kyun Bergtor,
Sitting nearby
Jerked - like
Needing her look

Konung. Slow
From the throne rose,
The hall looked around
Heavy laughed:

"What, having fun
Grief not knowing?
Think, I ... Togo ...
I do not understand?

After all, each of you
Be he a friend me Ile Brother,
Place mine.
Would take to take!

On Kyun Mo.
Throw out eyes;
Probably, walked
And the sea support! "

"Konung is drunk!"
Heard whisper.
"Troll learned it
Things swamp! "

What are you SC-IR Casual?
Well, repeat! "
Konung roared to the wall,
Where lari

Trot darted,
Drunk little
But suddenly stumbled
About banging leg.

After the flight -
Long he lasted -
Conong in the boiler
In beer landed.

All idle people
In the amazement froze.
The conken is redcal ...
And no longer pops up.

Be beer less
Drunk them
Maybe the end of saga
Would be different.

Beer benefit
Not so much.
Someone it
Right to the house to Hel Road.

It's terrible
Not once spoke.
Scalde of his words
Just repeated.

Saga about Harald Hardrade

The youth, who lived according to the Cession Code, since childhood, navigating navalism, paid views to the stranger shores, where it was ready to accomplish bloody, but heroic acts, not a robbery, nor Barysh, won his reputation, but leaving on itself a nightmarish memory. Even in the early youth, Viking boys, as expected (and encouraged), had to show martial spirit according to the covenants of "Havlamal".
Sagi tells how Olaf, the Norwegian King Warrior, somehow once sat down on his knees of three of his only baby brothers and began to frighten their terrible grimaces. Those who older, Guttorm and Halfdan, trembled from fear, and three-year Harald looked at the eyes of the Grozny monarch and pulled him out of all his strength. Olaf came to delight: "One day you will be avenger, Rodain."

The next day, Harald proved once again that the blood of Vikings flows in his veins. Olaf asked the brothers, which they want most of all in the world. Guttorm, stretching his hands on the parties, wished to have lands more than the ten largest neighboring landowners to grow a lot of wheat. "The grains will be in the forehead," the king agreed. - Well, you, Halfdan? " Halfdan dreamed of the unbarrous herds of the cows: "And when they will be devastated to the lake on the waterway, there will be so much that they surround all the lake with a dense ring." "Well, you will heal on a wide leg," said the king. And what did you want a little Harald? "I want an army!" She said. "This is a big that my warriors will eat all the cows of Brother Halfdana for one sitting!" Olaf laughed and said the mother of the kid: "You grow the king." As it turned out, Olaf was right. When the boy grew up, he became King Harald Hardrade and died during the invasion of England in 1066, shortly before the successful campaign of Wilhelm the Conqueror.

Song "Necrust" Scald

Again in battle is a squad,
Screaming again, the ringing of the secreir.
I throwing the raincoat
I don't climb into battle, I am for peace!

I fight reluctance
I do not like to kill ...
Oh, Arrow found Gerrend -
Need to call further.

So what am I talking about? A, about the battle,
Where the head of the trigger is peaked.
Since the judge is sharper razor
The court is always cool.

Who! I am not honored
Die with a sword in hand?
Seeing like an extreme warrior
Glitter Valhalla in the distance?

Hurt! I am not a hurry!
I am not a warrior, I am a poet.
I want - I ask without laughter! -
To live a lot of years.

People fall like pines
Under the blow of the ax.
Won Berserk with a view of evil
Mid here ... and it's time for me!

***
Did not gone to the tasted honey,
Head flew from shoulders.
Did not add years
This fiery speech!

Song Viking

Again the forehead shouting helmet steel,
Salted splashes in the face fly.
We are clichad with wikings, it means hardly
We have a way back ...

We are afraid and we hate us
We are never waiting for anywhere.
And so it will be, while our eyes see
Trail of other people's ships on the water ...

Odin and Torah forgot,
Do not want to believe in Valhalla - do not believe it!
The life taken will not be called a thief,
The wind is passing and we, and death!

And not everyone will see old age -
We have a different fate given:
The sail will become a sail,
And the mound will be a wave ...

Odin and Torah forgot,
Do not want to believe in Valhalla - do not believe it!
The life taken will not be called a thief,
The wind is passing and we, and death!

In France they were called Normans, in Russia - Varyagami. Vikings - people who lived in the territory of the current Norway, Denmark and Sweden from 800 to 1100 of our era approximately from 800 to 1100.

Wars and peers are two favorite Viking classes. The rapid sea robbers on the ships who were called the names, for example, the "Bull of the Ocean", "Voron Wind", made raids on the coast of England, Germany, Northern France, Belgium - and were taken from conquered tribute. Their desperate warriors-Berserki fought as mad, even without armor. Before the Battle of Berriki grilled their teeth, the edges of the shields were biting. The cruel gods of Viking - Asam were pleasing warriors who died in battle.

Openers of Iceland

But it was these ruthless warriors that opened the Islands of Iceland (in ancient language - "Ice Land") and Greenland ("Green Earth": Then the climate was warmer than now!). And the leader of the Vikings Leif is happy in 1000, sailing from Greenland, landed in North America, on Newfoundland Island. Vikings called the Outdoor Earth Winland - "Rich." Due to the shades with the Indians and among themselves, Vikings soon left and forgotten America, lost contact with Greenland.

Epoch Viking

And before our time they reached their songs about heroes and travelers - Sagi and Icelandic parliament, the first national assembly in Europe.

The beginning of the Viking era is considered to be 793 years old. This year, the famous Normanov attack on the monastery, located on the island of Lindisfarne (Northeast of Great Britain), occurred. It was then that England, and soon and the whole of Europe learned about the terrible "northern people" and their dragon-headed ships. In 794, they "visited" the nearby Island of Vearamus (there was also a monastery), and in 802-806 they got to the islands of Maine and Ihone (the west coast of Scotland)

First Schibling of London

In twenty years, the Normans were collected by a large army for the campaign to England and France. In 825 g, Vikings landed in England, and in 836, London was first plundered. In 845, Dana captured Hamburg, and the city was ruined so much that the bishopath, located in Hamburg, had to be transferred to Bremen in 851, 350 ships appeared again off the coast of England, this time were captured (and of course) London and Canterbury.

Creation of states of Normanov Daro

In 866, a storm several ships were attributed to the shores of Scotland, where the Normans had to winter. The following, 867 was formed by the New Dahlov State (DanelW). It includes Northumbria, East England, part of Essex and Mercia. Durable dutured until 878. At the same time, London was captured again in England, London was captured again, and then Normans moved to France. In 885, Rouen was captured, and Paris was in siege (in 845, in 857 and 861, Paris was already plundered). Having received a redemption, the Vikings removed the siege and moved to the northwestern part of France, which in 911 was transferred to Norwegian Rolonne. The area received the name of Normandy.

Conquest of England in the 10th century

At the beginning of the first century, Dana was trying again to capture England, which was only in 1016. Anglosex managed to throw their power only after forty years, in 1050. But they did not have time to enjoy freedom. In 1066, a huge fleet under the command of Wilhelm the conqueror, a normandy leaving attacked in England. After the battle of Hastings in England, Normans reigned.

Separation on Norwegians and Icelanders

In 861, Scandinavians learned about Iceland from Chohan Gardara Svafarson. Soon after that, in 872, the union of Norway by Harald beautiful, and many Norwegians fled to Iceland. According to some reports, up to 930 in Iceland moved from 20,000 to 30,000 Norwegians. Later, they began to call themselves Icelanders, separating themselves in this way from the Norwegians and other Scandinavian peoples.

Eica Raud (Red) Founder of the settlement Brattalid

In 983, from Iceland for the murder for three years, a man named Eika Raud (red) was sent. He went to search for the country, which, according to rumors, was seen in the west of Iceland. He managed to find this country called by Greenland ("Green Country"), which sounds rather strangely in relation to this snow-covered and cold island. In Greenland, Eica founded the settlement of Brattalid.

WINLEN LEIFA EYRIROSSON SON OF RYER OPEN BOSTON

In 986, a certain Bryarni Bardsson sailed from Iceland, intending to get to Greenland. He stumbled on an unknown land three times until he reached the southern coast of Greenland. Having learned about this, Leif Eyriksson, son of Eika Raud, repeated the journey of Baryni, coming to the Labrador Peninsula. Then he turned to the south and, having passed along the coast, found a terrain called "Winland" ("Grape Country"). Presumably this happened in 1000. According to the results of the work carried out by scientists, Wellands Leif Eyriksson was located in the area of \u200b\u200bmodern Boston.

Leif Brothers: Torvald and Torstain

After the return of Leif, Torvald Aiksson went to Winland, his brother. He lived there for two years, but in one of the skits with local Indians was mortally wounded, and his comrades had to return home.

The second brother of Leif, Torstain Eyriksson, also tried to reach Wilan, but he could not find this land.

In Greenland, there were only about 300 estates. Lack of forest created great difficulties for life. The forest grew up on Labrador, which was closer than in Iceland, but everything necessary had to carry from Europe, due to very difficult conditions of swimming in Labrador. Settlements in Greenland existed until the XIV century.

History of Viking

Vikings - (Normans), sea robbers, immigrants from Scandinavia who committed in 9-11 centuries. Camping with a length of up to 8000 km, maybe over long distances. These bold and fearless people in the east reached the borders of Persia, and in the West - new light.

The origin of the word Viking

The word "Viking" goes back to the ancient Years "Vikingr". Regarding his origin, there are a number of hypotheses, the most convincing of which builds it to Vick - Fiord, the bay. The word "Viking" (letters. "Man from Fiorland") was used to designate the robbers, which acted in coastal waters, hiding in secluded bays and bays.

In Scandinavia, they were known long before they acquired bad fame in Europe. The French called Vikings by Normans or various options for this word (Norse, Nortmanns - letters. "People from the North"); The British of all Scandinavians were called the Danes, and the Slavs, Greeks, Khazars, the Arabs called the Swedish Vikings Rus or Varyags.

Danish Vikings

Wherever the Vikings go - on British O-Va, France, Spain, Italy or North Africa, they ruthlessly robbed and captured other people's lands. In some cases, they settled in the conquered countries and became their rulers. Danish Vikings have conquered England for some time, settled in Scotland and Ireland.

Norwegian and Swedish Vikings

Together, they won part of France, known as Normandy. Norwegian Vikings and their descendants have created a colony on the islands of the North Atlantic - Iceland and Greenland and founded the settlement on the coast of Newfoundland in North America, however, which existed not long. Swedish Vikings began to rule in the east Baltic. They spread widely in Russia and, descending on the rivers to the Black and Caspian seas, even threatened Constantinople and some regions of Persia. Vikings were the last German barbarians-conquerors and the first European navigators-pioneers.

Activity in the 9th century

There are different interpretations of the reasons for a rapid outbreak of the viking activity in the 9th century. There is evidence that Scandinavia has been overcoles and many Scandinavians went abroad in search of happiness. Rich, but unprotected cities and monasteries of the Southern and Western neighbors were easy prey. It was unlikely that you could get a rebuff from the scattered kingdoms on the British O-Wah or a weakened Empire of Karl the Great, absorbed by dynastic straight.

In winter, robberies in summer landowners

In the era of Vikings in Norway, Sweden and Denmark, national monarchies gradually consolidated. Ambolism leaders and powerful clans fought for power. The victims defeated the leaders and their supporters, as well as the younger sons of the victims of the leaders, unseenly perceived the unobstructed robbery as a lifestyle. Energetic young people from influential families usually acquired authority thanks to participate in one or several campaigns.

Many Scandinavians were engaged in robbery in the summer, and then turned into ordinary landowners. However, Vikings Manil not only the temptation of mining.

Perspective to establish trade opened the way to wealth and power. In particular, the followers from Sweden controlled trade routes in Russia.

Viking translation - man from the bay

The English term "Viking" occurred from the VKingr VKingr, which could have several values. The most acceptable, apparently, the origin from the word VK is the bay, or the bay. Consequently, the word vking is translated as a "man from the bay."

This term was used to designate robbers, covering in coastal waters, long before the Vikings acquired the unkind glory in the outside world. However, not all the scandinavians were marine robber, and the terms "Viking" and "Scandinav" cannot be considered as synonyms. The French usually called the Vikings of the Normans, and the British of all Scandinavians were without parsing were to the Danes. Slavs, Khazara, Arabs and Greeks, who communicated with Swedish Vikings, called their Rus or Varyags.

Definitions from encyclopedia

Vikings (Dr.-Skand.), Scandinavians - participants in marine trade and robbing and conquering campaigns at the end of the 8th 11th centuries. to European countries. In Russia, they were called Varyahs, and Western Europe - Normans (Skand. Northman - "Northern Man"). In the 9th century Captured Northeastern England, 10 V. - Northern France (Normandy). Reached North America.

Encyclopedia Kirill and Methodius

About three centuries from 800 to 1050 years. e. Wiking warriors floated on their ships, terrorizing Europe. They sailed from Scandinavia in search of silver, slaves and lands. Vikings were mostly attacked Britain and France, while those invaded Russia. Vikings investigated many unknown land, floating on the huge Atlantic Ocean.

Vikings

Scandinavian peoples declared themselves on the European arena between 800 and 1050 years of our century. Their unexpected combat raids sowed fear in prosperous countries, which, in general, were familiar to the wars. Contacts between the northern countries and the rest of Europe are rooted in the distant past, which prove archaeological excavations. Trade and cultural exchange began a lot of millennia to our era. Nevertheless, Scandinavia remained a remote area of \u200b\u200bEurope, which did not have a large political and economic significance.

Arne Emil Kristensen

Shortly up to 800 of our era, the picture has changed. In 793, alien, which appeared from the sea, plundered the Lindisfarn Monastery on the eastern bank of England. At the same time, the first posts for raids in other corners of Europe came. In the historical annals of the next 200 years we will find many frightening descriptions. Large and small groups of robbers on ships appear on the entire coast of Europe. They come up on the rivers of France and Spain, conquer almost all Ireland and most of England, break their settlements along Russian rivers and off the coast of the Baltic Sea. There are reports of robber raids on the Mediterranean Sea, as well as far in the east, from the Caspian Sea. Northerners, settled in Kiev, were so reckless that they even tried to attack Constantinople's Roman Empire.

Gradually, colonization came to replace robbing plates. Names of settlements prove the presence of a large share of descendants of the Vikings in the population of Northern England with the center in York. In the south of England, we will find the area called Danlagen, which can be translated as "a place where Danish laws are operating." The French king handed over to Normandy Lena possession one of the leaders of the Vikings in order to protect the country from other raids. The mixed Celtic-Scandinavian population was formed on the islands north of Scandinavia. A similar situation was observed in Iceland and Greenland.

An unsuccessful attempt to entrenched in North America has become the last in a series of campaigns to the west. Approximately 1000 of our era refers information that the Vikings of Iceland or Greenland discovered a new land far in the West. In Sagakh, it is narrated by numerous campaigns, in order to settle on that land. Colonializers met resistance to either Indians or Eskimos and left these attempts.

Depending on the interpretation of texts of the Saga, the area of \u200b\u200bthe alleged landing of Vikings in America can reach out from Labrador to Manhattan. Researchers Anna-Style and Helge Ingstad found traces of ancient settlement in the north of Newfoundland Island. Excavations showed that the buildings were similar to those that can be found in Iceland and Greenland. Objects of Viking, belonging to about 1000 were also found. It is difficult to say whether these findings are traces of those campaigns that the sagas are narrated, or other events that history is silent. Clear one. Scandinavians visited the North American continent in the period about 1000 years, as they are narrated in sagas.

Population growth and lack of resources

What was the cause of that unprecedented expansion for just a few generations? Stable state formations in France and England clearly could not resist the raids. The picture of the epoch, which we draw on the basis of written sources, confirms the above, because Vikings are described as terrible robbers and gangsters. It is clear that they were so. But they possessed probably and other properties. Their leaders were most likely talented organizers. Effective military tactic provided Vikings victory on the battlefield, but they also managed to create stable public elements in conquered areas. Some of these formations existed for long (as, for example, the kingdoms in Dublin and York), others, for example, Iceland are still viable. The Kingdom of Vikings in Kiev was the basis of Russian statehood, and the traces of the organizational talent of the leaders of the Viking and to this day can be seen on the island of Maine and in Normandy. In Denmark, the ruins of the fortress of the end of the Viking time, designed for a greater number of troops. The fortress has the appearance of a ring, divided into four sectors, in each of which housed the residential buildings. The layout of the fortress is so accurate that this confirms the tendency of leaders to systematics and order, as well as the fact that among the Vikings there were experts from geometry and land.

In addition to the information sources of Western Europe, Vikings are mentioned in written documents from the Arab world and Byzantium. In the homeland of Vikings, we find short letters on the stone and the tree. Sagi XII century talk a lot about the times of Vikings, despite the fact that they wrote down several generations after those events that they narrow.

Motherland Vikings were territories belonging to Denmark, Sweden and Norway. The society from which they came out was the society of peasants, where farming and animal husbandry were complemented by hunting, fishing and manufacture of primitive utensils from metal and stone. Although the peasants could provide themselves with almost everything necessary, they were forced to buy some products as, for example, salt, which was needed and people and livestock. The salt, which was the daily product, was purchased from the neighbors, and the "delicacies" and special goods were supplied from the south of Europe.

Metal and stone dishes were susceptible goods, which led to the flourishing of trade in the time of Vikings. Even in those periods when Viking's raids were most frequent, trade was carried out between Scandinavians and Western Europe. One of the few descriptions of the situation in Norway in those times, we find in the letter of the North-Norwegian leader of Ottara. He visited the king Alfred Wessex as a peaceful merchant at a time when the king was in a state of war with other leaders of Viking.

There is a theory that the lack of vital resources against the background of the population growth was the cause of the expansion of the Vikings. Archaeological materials indicate the organization of new settlements in previously deserted places with simultaneous enhancement of interest in inrogen resources. This confirms the theory of population growth. Another explanation may be the production and processing of metal. Many metal is a lot of weapons and an undoubted advantage for those who are sent to the combat campaign.

Viking ships - their military advantage

Shipbuilding in the Nordic countries is, apparently, another factor that gave the Vikings advantage in hostilities. One famous Swedish archaeologist wrote that Viking ships are the only in kind of naval swimming agents that are able to approach close to the shore, which ever were at the disposal of the invasion forces.

Despite some categorical of this statement, it largely explains the secret of the military success of the Vikings. This thesis is confirmed by many historical documents describing Viking raids. The factor of surprises played an important role. Tactics concluded in a rapid attack on the part of the sea, on the light vessels who did not need mooring facilities and which could come to the shore where their least expected them, and as quickly worse before the enemy had time to come to his senses.

Much says that there was a section of spheres of influence between Norwegian, Danish and Swedish Vikings, despite joint participation in large campaigns under the leadership of influential leaders. The Swedes were mostly moved to the east, where they set control over river arteries deep into Russia and, thus, over the eastern trade routes. Danes moved to the south, to the territories of today's Germany, France and South England, and the Norwegians - to the West and the North-West, to North England, Scotland, Ireland and the Islands of the Atlantic.

Ships served not only for fighting and trade, but were also vehicles in the process of colonization. Full families, having gathered all their scarbs, loaded on the ships and went into the way to settle on new lands. Viking hiking across the North Atlantic to Iceland and Greenland prove that they knew how to build not only fast ships for hostilities in the North Sea, but also ships with very good nautical qualities. The colonization process began after new lands were opened by the navigators, and after receiving information about new places from merchants and warriors who returned from hiking.

There are signs that the indigenous population in many cases was expelled. In some areas, for example, in North England, Vikings preferred to engage in cattle breeding and used other landscape than the local population, which previously cultivated grain.

Those who reached Iceland and Greenland met the virgin nature. In Iceland, it was probably possible to meet a few Irish monks who left the world of "bootiers", but Greenland was almost deserted before the arrival of Vikings.

Historical documents telling about the Vikings were mainly written in Western Europe by people, relate to them. Therefore, you can be sure that there are only negative aspects of Scandinavians. The picture is significantly complemented by archaeological finds, both at the homeland of Vikings and in the areas of their campaigns. In the fields of former settlements, traces of household buildings and bazaars were found, where lost or broken and abandoned, things are told about the very simple life of Vikings. Remains for iron production were found in mountainous areas, where the presence of swamp ore and forest created a good basis for the development of crafts. A quarry was also found in which people collected steatitis for making pan or very good grindstone. If it is very fortunate enough, you can find old arable people in those areas that have not been used at a later time. There you can see the heaps of stones, carefully cleaned from the field, and even the grooves from the Viking-Agriculture plow appear on the light.

Cities and public education

In the time of the Vikings there were noticeable changes in society. Mighty kinds assigned more and more land and authority, which created the basis for the emergence of state entities and the first cities. We have the opportunity to trace the urban life from the old Ladoga and Kiev to York and Dublin in the British Islands. Life in cities was built on trade and handicraft. Despite the fact that the Viking-citizens in the delta there was cattle, agriculture and fisheries, cities were dependent on supplies from villages in the district. Near the South Norwegian city of Larvik found an ancient shopping area of \u200b\u200bCapang, which is mentioned in the letter of the leader of Vikings Ottora King Alfred. Capang remained a baza carrier, but the place of the tag near the city of Malaren in Sweden and Hebube, which near the Danish-German border can be called cities. Both of these cities were abandoned by the inhabitants by the end of the viking era, while Ribe, in the Danish province of West Yulland, and to this day, like York and Dublin. In cities we see signs of planning with rosary boundaries of land, roads and defensive structures on the outskirts. It is quite clear that some cities were deliberately planned. Many were probably based on the royal command, where they participated in the planning and section of the Earth.

It is noticeable that the sewage system and garbage cleaning were also not well planned as the territory section. Sleeps lie like a thick layer that we can imagine how much the cities were dirt and salty. Here you can find everything - from waste of artisans to Bloch - and make a picture of the life of citizens. Sometimes there are objects that have fallen into these edges from afar, as, for example, Arab silver coins and remnants of silk fabric from Byzantium, as well as products of local craftsmen - Kuznetsov, shoemakers, manufacturers of ridges.

Religion Vikings

Christianity was recognized in the Nordic countries by the end of the Viking Time. It came to replace paganism, where many gods and goddesses patronized every sphere of human existence. God gods were old and wise - one. The tour was God of war, and, Frey - the God of farming and cattle breeding. The Locke of God was famous for his sorcerence, but was frivolous and did not use confidence from other gods. The blood enemies were giants, personified the forces of darkness and evil.

The available descriptions of the pagan gods were created already in times of Christianity and largely carry the new faith. Geographical names such as Tourshov, Frischov and Unswake, retained the names of the pagan gods. The end of the "Hove" in the name of the place means that there used to be the temple of the pagans. The gods possess human features, like the Greek gods on Olympus, live a stormy life. They fight, eat and drink. The warriors who fell in battle fell straight to the abundant table of the gods. The customs of the burial are clearly narrowed that the same utensils needed to be dead as in life on Earth. During the times of the Vikings, the dead or cremated or buried, as it is, but the funeral ritual was the same. The number of utensils in the grave, spoke of some differences in rituals and about the social status of the deceased. Norway was famous for the most magnificent funeral. Thanks to this, the ancient graves are an invaluable source of knowledge about the daily life of the Vikings. All household items that followed the dead to be used in life after death, allow us to penetrate the world of Vikings, despite the fact that it is often possible to find the remnants of what was laid in the grave. Gravestone finds complement archaeological material from the place of settlements. There you can find lost and broken things, ruins of houses, residues of food and waste of artisans, and in the graves - the best thing is that a person had in life. In the texts of the laws, it can be assumed that the fact that today we call the means of production (land, livestock), remained family members, and in the grave with the dead led the subjects of personal use.

Nasiya Society

The violence reigned in the society is evidenced by the fact that almost all men got buried with weapons. Well-equipped warrior must have a sword wooden shield with a metal plate in the center for hand protection, Spear, ax and onions with arrows in the amount of up to 24 pieces. Helmet and chain mail, in which Vikings depict modern artists, in fact, when excavations are found very rarely. Helmets with horns, which are an indispensable attribute of the Vikings in the paintings, in fact, have never been found among the real things of the Vikings.

But in the graves of warriors, military equipment, we find the objects of peaceful - sickles, braids and hoes. The blacksmith is buried with his hammer, anvil, ticks and a file. Next to the peasant from the coastal areas, we can see fishing gear. Fishermen often buried in their boats. In the graves of women, you can find their personal decorations, kitchen utensils and guns for the manufacture of yarn. Women also often buried in boats. Wooden, textile and leather things are rarely saved to the present day, which leaves many unclear questions in the study of that time. Only in a few graves the land retains a little more than usual. Oslo-Fiorhed offshore, immediately under the peat layer, is a clay layer, which prevents the penetration of water and air. Some graves would be molded for many thousands of years and, thus, they kept all the items in them. In this regard, the burials of Polebed, Tyun and Gokstad should be called, the treasures of which are exhibited in the Museum of Viking Ships on the Island of Bugays in Oslo.

These are examples of how successful ground conditions allow you to preserve traces of antiquity. We do not know who was buried there, but, judging by the pompousness of the burial, they most likely belonged to the top of society. Perhaps they were related to the royal dynasty, which, several generations later, united Norway into a single state.

Recently with the counting of annual rings on wooden productsIt was possible to establish the age of graves Papers, Tyu and Gokstad. The ship from the burial of Polebed was built in 815-820 of our era, and the burial itself took place in 834. Ships from the graves of Tyu and Gokstad are about 890, and were buried immediately after 900. In these three graves, ships were used as coffins. One bottom was preserved from the ship from the burial of Tyu, and the grave itself was looted. However, it can be seen that this ship had the same excellent quality as the other two. Ships from the graves of Tyu, Usiberg and Gokstad had a length of 20, 22 and 24 meters, respectively.

In the process of the burial, the ship turned ashore and descended into a deep hole. The mast was constructed a wooden crypt, which was placed dead in their best outfits. Then the ship was filled with the necessary utensils and sacrificed horses and dogs. A high grave hill was constructed over all of this. One Arab who passed through Russia in the 800s, met the funeral procession of the Viking, buried his leader. Ibn Fadlan described that they saw them, and this document was preserved to our time. The ship's ship was pulled ashore, and many values \u200b\u200bwere immersed in him. The deceased was dressed in his best outfit and placed on the bed in the ship. One of the slaves who wished to go to the world other with his master, his horse and the hunting dog were sacrificed, then the ship with all the contents was burned, and the Kurgan was erected above the ashes. In Scandinavia and Western Europe, there have been many burials with burned ships, but the largest Oslo-Fiorrad in the area turned out to be intact. In the ship from the burial of Gokstad, the remains of a man were found, which can be said about the ship from Tyu. But in the ship from the subsubed, two women were buried. According to skeletons, it was possible to determine that one of them was 50-60 years old, and the other 20-30. Who was the main face, and who we will never know the satellite.

The burial of Juistered and Gokstad was looted, and the decorations and the best weapons disappeared without a trace. Products from wood, leather and textiles robbers were not interested and therefore preserved to the present day. Traces of similar graves are found in other places. Much confirms the correctness of the assumption of the existence of customs to put in the grave of dogs from dogs and horses, weapons, ship snap-out (oars, ladders, scales, food boilers, tents and often, overseas bronze cans). Chans probably initially contained food and drink for the deceased.

The burial of the subsired has no traces of weapons, which is characteristic of the graves of women, but, otherwise, there was an ordinary set of things. In addition to this, the deceased had an objects next to him confirming its status of the head of large economy. It can be assumed that women were responsible for keeping household at the time when men were hiking. A woman from Polebed, like many of her tribesmen, probably was a mature and respected lady independently of the kind of classes - whether it is a manufacturer of yarn along with other women, managing field works or feather cows, making cheese and oil. In addition to the ship in her grave, there were carts and sleigh. The path to the kingdom of the dead could pass on the water, and on land, and the deceased had to have all the necessary equipment. The horses were sacrificed, in an amount sufficient to damage and in the sleigh, and in the cart. In addition, a tent and saucepans, tailor, chests and caskets were found in the grave, troughs for milk and buckets, knife, knife, shovels and hoes, saddle, dog harness, and much more. The reserve of the province on the road to the kingdom of the dead consisted of a pair of slaughtered bulls, a whole trick of the dough for baking bread, and the dessert was a bucket of wild apples.

Many wooden things are decorated with carvings. It can be seen that in the farm, many engaged in art crafts. Even the most simple everyday things - like, for example, the solders of the sleigh are covered with a carved ornament. If you do not take into account the Usived finds, the Vikings, mostly, were famous for their metal decorations of a small format. Wood carving contains similar motives, where the figures of fabulous animals are prevailed, gluing into a dense, chaotic pattern. The technique of carving is excellent and suggests that the people of the Usiful Queen treated the cutters as skillfully as with a weapon.

A man, buried in Gokstad, also had an excellent carpent on a tree, despite the fact that in his grave is not so many carved products as in Polebed. The ship from Usiferg had a low side and possessed not so good nautical qualities as ships from Gokstad and Tyu. Nevertheless, the ship would quite handle swimming through the North Sea. This design is typical for Viking ships of the 800s. Built in our time, the copy-copy was high-speed, but it was difficult for them to manage. The ships from Polebed, Gokstad and Tyu, were most likely like private ships for marine travel nobles, and not for the transportation of warriors. The Gokstadsk ship has the best naval qualities than the ship from Polebed. This was confirmed by its copies floating through the Atlantic Ocean, both under sails and with 32 rowers. Even with full loading, the ship is immersed only by 1 meter, which makes it possible to plant rapid landings on enemy shores. Probably, intensive navigation in the 800s gave the Vikings experience applied then in the construction of ships with a more advanced form of the hull. If such assumptions are true, then the difference in the ships from Juice and Gokstad is the result of the accumulated experience of three generations from swimming in the North Sea, as well as long discussions between shipbuilders who wanted to create something new.

1000-year-old development

Shipbuilding technique used by Vikingami is called clinker. Built ships were the result of more than 1000-year-old shipbuilding development in Scandinavia. The goal of shipbuilders all the time was the creation of light and flexible structures that would adapt to the wind and waves, and would work with them, and did not fight against them. The body of the Viking ships is built on a powerful keel, which, together with an elegantly curved terrestrial, was the basis of the design. The plank behind the plank was knocked out to the keel and the sortiece and mounted braziness using metal rivets. This design gave the body elegance and durability. After the body took the desired form, the splint sets were installed in it. Additional flexibility of the design attached to the fact that the splintings and the on-board coverings were interconnected. Cross beams At the level of the Waterlinia, increased resistance to transverse loads, and thick logs supported the mast. Ships went under a square sail raised on the mast in the middle of the case. During the calm or at a weak wind, ships walked on oars.

By the end of the viking era, the construction of pure warships, which differed by speed and increased capacity, as well as purely trading, where the speed of movement was not as important as the carrying capacity. Trading ships had a small crew and were mainly calculated for sailing.

The arrival of christianity

Around 1000th year, Christianity came to the land of Vikings. The change of religion was undoubtedly one of the reasons for the cessation of robbing raids. Denmark, Sweden and Norway became independent kingdoms. Life did not always proceed peacefully in the Christian kingdoms, but the distribution was settled by rapidly changing alliances kings. Often countries were on the verge of war, but the conflict between the rulers stopped, and the need to cross the weapons disappeared. Trading ties established during the times of Vikings continued, but already in the situation when the northern countries became part of Christian Europe.

The author of the article, Arne Emil Christensen, - Doctor of Philosophy, Professor at the Archaeological Museum of the University of Oslo. He is a specialist in the history of shipbuilding and crafts in the Iron Age and in the Viking Epoch.

Vikings - rannesseed Scandinavs

kie navigas, inVIII-XI centuries who made marine hikes from Winama to Biarmia and from the Caspian to North Africa. In the bulk, these were free peasants who lived in the territory of modern Sweden, Denmark and Norway, which were pushing out of their native countries overpopulation and thirst for easy profit. According to religion - in the overwhelming majority of pagans.

Swedish Vikings and Vikings from the coast of Baltic - traveled to the East and appeared in the Old Russian and Byzantine sources under the name of Varyagov.

Norwegian and Danish Vikings - moved in their most west and are known in Latin sources under the name of Normanov.

A look at the Vikings from the inside of their society gives Scandinavian sagas, however, approaching this source should be careful due to the late dates of their compilation and recording.

Settlements

Vikings lived in large family groups. Children, fathers and grandfathers lived together. When the eldest son took over the farm, he simultaneously became the head of the family and responsible for her well-being.The peasant dwellings of Scandinavians of the IX-XI centuries were simple one-bedroomat home , constructed or densely fitted verticalbruusyev , or more often from a wicker vineglina . Wealthy people usually lived in a large rectangular house, where numerous relatives were located. In strongpopulated Scandinavia such houses were built from wood, often in combination with clay, and in Iceland and Greenland, in the conditions of lack of wood, the local stone was widely used. There were a wall with a thickness of 90 cm and more. Roofs usually fired frompeat . The central residential room of the house was low and dark, in the middle of her longfocus . They prepared food, ate and slept. Sometimes inside the house along the walls were installed in a rowpillars Supported the roof, and the lateral premises were drizzled as the bedrooms.

clothing

The peasant clothing of Scandinavians of the IX-XI centuries consisted of a long woolen shirt, short baggy pants, stockings and a rectangular cape. Vikings from the highest classes wore long pants, socks and capes of bright colors. In the go were woolen mittens and caps, as well as fur caps and even felt hats.

Women from the highest society usually wore long clothes, consisting of a bodice and skirts. Thin chains hung with buckles on clothes, to which scissors and a shell case were attached, knife, keys and other small items. Married women laid her hair in a bundle and wore white linen caps of conical shape. W. unmarried girls The hair was picked up with ribbon. For the designation of its position, the Vikings was worn by metal decorations. Very popular were buckles on the belt, brooches and suspension. Screw bracelets of silver and gold were usually given a warrior for holding a successful raid or for victory in battle.

In the mass culture of Vikings, they are often depicted with horned helmets. In fact, archaeologists cannot say exactly what form were Viking helmets. The idea of \u200b\u200bhorned helmets is associated with drawings discovered in the burials (for example, the Sevetergian ship). Now scientists are inclined to the fact that if helmets with horns and were used, then only at ritual purposes, and not in battle.

Weapons

The most common type of weapons -a spear about 150 cm long. Such a spear could also be pricking, and chop.Scandinavian secocira differed wide, symmetrically divergentblade . Scandinavian sword was a long, double-edged blade with a smallgardoy . Only the top one third of the blade was exhausted, the lower two thirds are weakly or not sharpened at all.

Ships

Vikings were skilled shipbuilders who created the most advanced ships of their era. Since in the Scandinavian society it was customary to bury the warriors along with their roys, archaeologists have a good idea of \u200b\u200bthe characteristics of Viking ships. Specialized museums are open in Oslo, Roskill and some other cities. The most famous belongs are the ships of Gokstad and Usibergsky. Both were discovered over a hundred years ago and are now exhibited in the Drakkar Museum in Oslo. From Saga, it is known that the ships walked under the window with the image of a black crow.

The Viking Fleet consisted mainly of warships, which were called dragcars, and from the shopping ships of the Knorros. Combat ships and commercial vessels allowed men to visit overseas countries, and immigrants and researchers crossed the sea in search of new lands and wealth. Numerous rivers, lakes and other waterways Scandinavia gave the Vikings simple and convenient way of movement. In Eastern Europe, in the conditions of numerous wolves, one-piece boats were distributed, which were calculated to approach shallow water rivers and berths to the gentle banks, which allowed the Vikings very quickly move and take their enemies by surprise.

Vikings in England

June 8, 793 N. e. Vikings landed on the island of Lindisfarn in Northumbria, destroying and devastating the monastery of St. Kutbert. This is the first Viking attack, a clearly recorded in written sources, although it is obvious that the Scandinavians visited the British shores before. Since at first, the Vikings used the tactics of pinch strikes (quickly robbed and retraced into the sea), the chronicists did not give them to raids. Nevertheless, the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle is mentioned by the raid of marine robbers of unknown origin on Portland in Dorset in 787

The conquest of the Anglo-Saxon kingdoms and the occupation of the Western and Northern part of England became serious success of Danish Vikings. In 865, the sons of the Danish Konong Ragnar of the Librify brought a large army of chronic schools to the shores of England " great Army Gentiles. " In 870-871 The sons of Ragnar were subjected to the Kings of Eastern England and the Northumbria of the cruel execution, and their possessions were divided among themselves. Following that the Danes began to conquer the Mercy.

The King of Wessex Alfred Great was forced to conclude with the Danes first a truce (878), and then a full-fledged peace treaty (about 886), thereby leaking their possession in Britain. The British capital of Vikings was the city of Yorvik. Despite the tide of fresh forces from Scandinavia in 892 and 899, Alfred and his son Eduard Senior successfully opposed the Danish conquerors, by 924. Cleaning the territory of Eastern England and Messi from them. Scandinavian domination in the distant Northumbria continued until 954 (Edreda War with Eyric Bloody Script).

The new wave of Viking raids to the British shores began in 980. Its culmination was the conquest of England in 1013. Danish vikings are covered with a viloborod. In 1016-35 At the head of the United Anglo-Danish monarchy stood Knud the Great. After his death, the Wessec dynasty represented by Eduard confessor returned to himself English throne (1042). In 1066, the British beat the next invasion of Scandinavians, this time headed by the Norwegian konung Kharald Surov (see Battle of Stamford Bridge).

The latter of Danish monarchs attracted a nephew of Knude to the English lands, Sven Estrirdsen. In 1069, he sent a huge fleet (up to 300 ships) to help Edgar Etling in the fight against Wilhelm I the Conqueror, and the next year arrived in England independently. However, capturing York and having met Wilhelm's army, pretended to get a big redemption and returned with the fleet back to Denmark.

Movement on the West

Scandinavian influence on political culture, the social structure and language of Ireland and other Celtic lands was much more significant than in England, however, the chronology of their intrusions due to the scarce of sources cannot be restored with the same accuracy. The first raid in Ireland is mentioned in 795. With the arrival of Vikings, the base of Dublin is connected, which Scandinavians owned for two centuries. In Limerick and Waterford, their Scandinavian conjants were in Limerick and Waterford, while Dublin Konounds spread their power at the beginning of the X century even to Northoumbry.

The Scandinavian colonization of Iceland began at Haralde, who was a beautiful woman (about 900), who forced them to look for good luck in the western seas with his onslaught in small Norwegian Konsung. Moving to the West, the Vikings settled the Orkney, Shetland, Hebrid, Faroe Islands, as well as the Isle of Man. Ingolph Arnarson stood at the head of Icelandic first-settlements. Icelandets Eric Redhead in the 980s entrenched in Greenland, and his son Leif Ericsson founded the first settlement on the territory of Canada (see Ans-O-Medical). There is a theory that in its movement to the west of the scandinavis got to Minnesota (see Kensington Runed Stone).

The battle of clock (1014) put an end to the hopes of Scandinavians to conquer all Ireland. Nevertheless, the British, invisited in the XII century in Ireland, found that baptized scandinavans were still hung in the coastal regions of the island.

Vikings and francs

Viking relationships with the Frankish Empire were complex. In the time of Charles of the Great and Louis of the Pious Empire was relatively protected from Natius from the north. From episodic Norman raids in the IX and X centuries, Galicia, Portugal and some Mediterranean land suffered. Such Viking leaders like Ryrik Yutland went to the service to the Frankish rulers in order to protect the frontiers of the empire from their own tribesmen, at the same time controlling rich markets in the Rhine delta, as, for example, Walcherren and the Dorestad. Yutland Konung Harald Klak back in 823 brought the oath of loyalty to Louis Gobestil.

With the growth of feudal fragmentation, the defense of Vikings became more difficult, and they reached Paris in their raids. King Karl Pretty Finally decided in 911 to give the Scandinavian leader Rollen North of France, which was called Normandy. This tactic turned out to be effective. Radie ceased, and the squad of Northerners soon dissolved in the local population. From Rollon in a straight line, Wilhelm took place the conqueror, headed by the Norman conquest of England in 1066. At the same time, the Norman genus of Ducklings conquered the south of Italy, putting the beginning of the Sicilian kingdom.

Eastern Europe

The penetration of the Vikings in Finnish lands began in the 2nd half of the 7th century, as the oldest layers of old Ladoga testify about Tom (similar layers in the Danish Ribe). At about the same time with them, these lands were settled and mastered the Slavs. Unlike raids on the shores of Western Europe, Viking settlements in Eastern Europe were more stable. The Scandinavians themselves noted the abundance of fortified settlements in the east of Europe, the surroundings of the ancient Russia "country of cities" -carrads. Evidence of the violent penetration of Vikings in the east of Europe is not so numerous as in the West. As an example, the invasion of the Swedes in the lands of Kury, about which is told in the life of Ansharra.

The main object of the interest of Vikings was the river paths for which through the system of wolves could be reached to the Arab Caliphate. Their settlements are known at Volkhov (old Ladoga, Rurikovo Sorry), Volga (Sarah settlement, Timervsky Archaeological Complex) and Dnieper (Nestsovsky Kurgan). The concentration places of the Scandinavian burial grounds, as a rule, are somewhat a few kilometers from the city centers, where the local population was settled, mainly Slavic, and in many cases - and from the river arteries themselves.

In the 9th century, the Vikings provided trade with Khazars along the Volga with the help of a protortment structure, called some historians with Russian kaganat. Judging by the findings of coins, in the 10th century, the main trading artery was the Dnieper, the main trading partner instead of Khazaria - Byzantium. According to the Norman theory, from the symbiosis of the suppressed Varyag (Rusov), the state of Kievan Russia was born with the Slavic population, led by Rurikovichi - the descendants of Prince (Konong) Rurik.

In the lands of Prussians, Vikings kept in their hands shopping centers Koup and Bruso, where the "amber way" began in the Mediterranean. In Finland, the traces of their long presence were found on the shores of Lake Vanyawebs. In the old Ladoga at Yaroslav wise Joll was sitting Regunwald Ulvson. Vikings made traveling to the mouth of the North Dvina for the fur and granted the Zavorotsky path. Ibn Fadlan in 922 met them in the Volga Bulgaria. Through the Volga-Don Wolf, Sarkela Rus went down to the Caspian Sea (see Caspian hiking of Rus). For two centuries, they fought and traded with Byzantia, concluding several treaties with her (see the goal of Rus against Byzantium). Viking's military trading routes allow you to judge the runic inscriptions found on the Berezan Island and even in the Konstantinople Saint Sophia Cathedral.

Termination of marine hikes

Vikings rolled out their conquests in the first half of the XI century. This is due to the reduction of the population of Scandinavian lands, the spread of Christianity in the north of Europe, which did not approve of the robbery, according to which the tribute of the Roman Catholic Church was not paid. In parallel, a feudal relationship came to a change of the generic relationship, and the traditional semi-coursing lifestyle of the Viking was inferior to a settled place. Another factor was the reorientation of trade routes: Volzhsky and Dneprovsky river pathways have steadily inferior to the meaning of the Mediterranean trade, which the Venetian and other trading republics revived.

Separate adventurers from Scandinavia in the XI century were still hired to serve the Byzantine emperors (see Varangi Guardians) and the Old Russian Princes (see Saga about Eymund). To the last Vikings on the Norwegian throne, historians include Olafa Haraldson and Harald Surov, who folded his head when trying to conquer England. One of the last distant overseas hike in the spirit of the ancestors was taken by Ingvar traveler who died during the expedition on the banks of the Caspian Sea. Having adopted Christianity, yesterday's vikings were organized in 1107-1110. Own crusade in the holy land.

One of the summer days of 789 on the coast of the Anglo-Saxon Kingdom of Wesseks occurred, which was noticed exclusively by local chronicles. By the shores of Portland, in the era of the Roman Empire, hereinafter referred to as Latin by Winelis, three long turbines were capable of going both on oars and under sails. From the ships, bearded blonde strangers, who spoke in the tongue, distantized with ancientangalian - at least, the roots of most words were understandable to the inhabitants of Wessex. Tan Beochtrick was released towards the ships with his people. What a conversation was conducted about, it was unknown, but she ended the quarrels: the aliens killed Behatrik, cut off his small detachment, took the trophy weapons, plunged on the rooks and disappeared in the ocean.

In general, this story for those times was not something out of a series of outgoing - the matter through everyday. The Anglo-Saxon kingdoms of Britain diligently bent among themselves, and when nearby Swarms were bored, they were taken to punish the Celts in Wales or Scotland, received surrender and returned to the usual cross-visits. The war was the most ordinary, but if you pay attention to the annals for each small skirmish - no parchment is not forced. So why is such a minor incident on the Winelis attribute the attention of chronic, and in our times it is considered hardly the key event of the 7th century in Europe, which gave the start of the new era?

Scheme of Scandinavian expansion in VIII –XI centuries. Green marked areas undergoing Viking attacks, but they are not colonized

It should be noted here that the Anglo-Saxons have already been more than two hundred years old - as well as without exception their neighbors: Franks and Bretons for La Manshas, \u200b\u200bIrish, Scots and Welsh. Realities of multi-grade, if they persist, on the household level or in completely remote and hard-to-reach mountainous areas. Landshed in Wessex, uncompatible beardeds turned out to be the most real pagans - that in itself was extremely unusual.

History with Tana Beochtrik - the first documentary evidence of the appearance of Vikings. The plundering of Lindisfarne and the Jarrow, raid on Ireland, landing in the Orcanese and Shetland Islands - all this will happen. In 789, none of the British or Franks could even assume that Christian Europe faced the force, which for the three subsequent centuries will change not only borders, but also the demographic situation, culture, and even the reason for the appearance of a new prayer: "A Furore Normanorum Libera NOS , Domine! " - "Save us from Riotriosti Normanov!"

So let's try to figure out where the Vikings came from who they are and why their invasion took place.

Scandinavia in the dark century

People on the Scandinavian Peninsula appeared long before the Nativity of Christ. The earliest cultures (Congiemosis, culture of related Likhult, Ertebelle culture, etc.) belong to the mesolith and the period near the sixth millennium BC. For two or three thousand years BC In South Scandinavia, carriers of "culture of combat axes and cord ceramics" appear, which, presumably become the core of the origin of the German peoples - they migrate to the north of the Yutland Peninsula and begin to settle the territories of the current Sweden and Norway.

However, this is quite an old business, and we are interested in the period after the fall of the Roman Empire, when a group of Severogherman tribes began to be separated from the rest of Europe. Great relocation of peoples, Rome's wreck, the adoption of Christianity by Goths, Franks and other Germans - in a word, all the grand changes in the mid-first millennium of our era Scandinavia practically did not affect: too far. In the dark century, no one showed interest in Scandinavia: francs were something to do on the continent, the introduction of Christianity went beyond and confidently, but slowly: the church first should be established in new barbaric states. The inhabitants of the peninsula located behind the North and Baltic seas "were cooked in their boiler" many centuries, almost nothing know about the turbulent events in Europe. Christian missionaries there, if they appeared, were single and not able to achieve serious success: the old German gods worshiped, as the centuries ago, and their cult did not threaten.

Helmet of the Bendent style, VIII century (from the collection of the Stockholm Museum of Antiquities)

Here it is necessary to make a spicy retreat and tell about the climatic features of those times - otherwise it will be incomprehensible, why suddenly, starting from the VIII century, the scandinavians rushed to look for new lands for the settlement. With the course of centuries, the climate changed more than once, optimis (warming) and pessimums (cooling) alternated - the so-called Roman climatic optimum, which continued from the time of Julia Caesar about 400 of our era, a lot contributed to the prosperity of the Roman Empire. average temperature Then it was higher on average for 1-2 degrees, Roman authors report to us that in Britain and Germany even began to grow grapes - approximately from 280 years.

In turn, the climatic pessimis of the early Middle Ages, who comes during the Great Resettlement, aggravated and so not the most prosperous military-political and demographic situation in Europe - the sowing squares began near the 5th century, it is especially useful to the North regions in general and, of course, Scandinavia in particular. Saint Gregory Tour in the extensive work of the VI century "History of Frankov" notes: " At that time, there was plentiful rains, there was a lot of water, stood an unbearable cold, the roads were rascisley from the dirt and the river left the shores" In 535-536, an unprecedented climatic anomaly occurs at all. We give the word Byzantine historian to the procopy of Caesarian ("War", IV, 14. 5-6):

"... And this year, the greatest miracle happened: the whole year the sun was empty as the moon, without rays, as if it was lost his strength, having ceased, as before, clean and brightly shine. Since that time, it did not stop among people, no war, nor the sea ulcer nor any other disaster carrying death. Then she walked the tenth year of the Board of Justinian. "

Other authors argue that even at noon the sun looked "bluish" and the items did not discard the shadows - this means that for almost aven a half years, dusty suspension was present in the atmosphere, caused by the eruption of the supervolkan or a drop in a large meteorite, and, most likely, both factors. German scientist Wolfgang Bechringer in the book "Kulturgeschichte des Klimas" cites archaeological data - in Norway VI century about forty percent of farms turned out to be abandoned, that is, their owners or extinct, or migrated south. In general, in the Old Malvesal mythology, cold, frost and ice have the properties of eschatological, being a symbol of death and chaos - remember the ice giants ...

Nevertheless, by the VIII century, the climate begins to stabilize - it comes warming, the sowing areas are expanding, the grain yields can be removed on the latitudes adjacent to the polar circle, the quality of life increases sharply. The result is quite natural - the explosive growth of the population.

However, there should be not only climatic features, but also the geographical specificity of the Scandinavian Peninsula. If there are extensive plains suitable for agriculture on the territory of Eastern Sweden, then in the mountainous Norway, grow bread and the mouth of the flocks can be exclusively on the narrow strips of the earth along the coast and in the valleys of rivers. It is impossible to infinitely fragmented internally between sons - the Earth is still not proceeding. In the dry residue: excess (and passionate) population, lack of food. Scandinavia is not rubber. What to do?

The output was found quite quickly - there are no fertile land, it means that such a need to look for the sea. Taking into account the fact that the ancient Scandinavians have long been able to build excellent ships, the decision of the issue was lying on the palm. The first "prototype" of Drakkar, "Hjorthspringe Ladya", found by archaeologists in Denmark, on the island of Als, refers to the IV century BC. - The boat could accommodate up to 20 rowers. Moreover, Scandinavian rooks having a minimal sediment could walk on any shallow water and penetrate into narrow rivers.

Hjorthspringe Freak - vessel of the ancient Germans, approx.IV century BC. National Museum of Denmark

Then the first seals of the ancient Scandinavians begin in the direction of the continent and the British islands - to begin with for the purpose of more reconnaissance than conquering. It was necessary to familiarize themselves with the situation, and this clearly testified: there are many land there, the density of the local population is extremely small, such a population to lightning towards the sea is unusual, and indeed not aware that they are possible. There are also documentary evidence - we will quote the scientist, theologian and poet of the VIII century Flycca Albina (Alquina):

"Three hundred fifty years we and our fathers lived in this beautiful land, and never before Britain did not know such horror, which now I have known, after the appearance of pagans. No one suspected that robbers can come from behind the sea. "

No one suspected. And Europe paid a huge price for his ignorance.

They came!

In the light of the foregoing, the question remains open - what is the European kings and the playful political role of the bishops slapted such an incredible danger? Where did the great historical figures of that era watched? In the end, the emperor Charles the Great could not be called an incompetent slamnik, and the tool is so important for the state, as an intelligence, former barbarians have completely successfully adopted by Rome who went into oblivion! It is quite obvious that at least some connections between the Empire of Franks and Scandinavia existed - the northern borders of Saxony and the Frisia were adjacent to the territory of the current Denmark, the inhabitants of which will also take a living participation in the upcoming depths of Vikings.

No answer. Perhaps the treasured cultural and civilizational differences played their role - recall the words of Alquina, in which the key is the concept of "pagan", which is opposed to "Christians". The Europeans were then united by ethnic, but according to a religious basis: a stranger was any non-Christian, whether the Spanish Maur-Muslim or honoring the gods of Asgard Scandinavia. For the time being, the franc and the kingdom of Britain were treated with non-retirement pagans from distant northern fjords disdain, sincerely believing that the Lord on the side of Christians (then - who is against them?!).

Vikings. Oldenglian miniatures

Now it is necessary to explain what we mean by the term "Viking". The Word itself is formed from two parts: "VIK", that is, "Bay, Bay", and the end of the "Ing", denoting the community of people, most often generic - comparable: Caroling, Capeling, etc. We get a "man from the bay"! The original Viking squads were made up of those of the most excess population - the younger sons, not inheritant, people who left the genus themselves or expelled from it, or even the seekers of adventures, wealth and glory. I.e, not settlety Scandinavians-landowners. However, why only Scandinavians? As part of the crew of the ship could be anywhere - Norwegian, Venten, Ruyanin, Pridogo Krivich. After the Scandinavians began to master the "way from Varyag in the Greeks" through Neva, Ladoga, Volkhov and further to the Volga Pool, as part of a friend began to appear quite a few Slavs, especially since the Polytetic Pantheones of Scandinavia and Ancient Russia were very close, and on this basis It was possible to quite quickly find a common language.

So, Viking is not a profession, not nationality and not a genus of classes. This is a social status, a marginal social group, something average between good luck soldier, a person without a certain place of residence and a bandite in the composition organized group Persons of Scandinavian (and not only) nationality. Such goodly well done without any unnecessary reflection could easily rob the neighboring fjord, their own conifers-Norwegians or freshers - precedents are known. In most, they were not limited to the settled Scandinavians with the system of moral taboos and gradually began to believe that there are higher boring farmers at least because the Sacralization of War began in the religious sphere - it is enough to recall the cult of warrior governments, one, Torah and others.

Thor with Molotnir hammer. Figurine, dating from about 1000 AD.

If a social group appeared, then its subculture will certainly be born, their own ethics and their religious views - especially in the conditions of the dominant circulation of a tribal system. For examples, it is not necessary to go far - the priesthood functions, go, are gradually moving towards military leaders: if you are a lucky conken, then approaching the gods, they are in favor of you - therefore, you send you the necessary rituals and bring sacrifices. It is guaranteed to get to the Valchalla after death can be only one way - heroically die in battle. One of the first places is a personal valor and glory, of course, mined in an honest battle.

Finally, it is the Vikings "invent" the marine infantry in the way, in which we know it - there was nothing to oppose their unprecedented tactics to Europeans-Christians. The scheme developed by the ancient scandinals was simple, but incredibly effective: the sudden raid is almost anywhere in the sea or river coast (again remember the ability of drakars to walk in shallow water), and after a successful attack, such a lightning distance, until the enemy had time to pull out how significant Forces - search-fistulas later these robbers in the open sea. It is already then the Vikings will take respectable trade, I will open Iceland, Greenland and America for curiosity, and go to the "Varangian squad" to Byzantine emperors, and at the end of the VIII - the beginning of the 9th centuries, they were engaged exclusively with the blatant robbery, lands in England, Ireland and on the mainland, slave trade and other no less interesting things…

Old vane ships, modern reconstruction. In the foreground DrakkarIslendingur. ("Icelandes"), which made the transition under sail in 2000 through the Atlantic Ocean. Currently located in the Museum of Nyardwick, Iceland

To tell here about the first large climb of the Vikings - the attack on the monastery of St. Kutbert on the island of Lindisfarn on June 8, 793 - it does not make sense, this story is well known. Suffice it to say that this unpleasant event happened only four years after the first appearance of the Vikings off the coast of Wessex; Scandinavians very quickly realized that Christian monasteries and cities keep a lot of wealth, which should be found more reasonable use. Even the coffin of the monastery, Saint Kutbert, was dragged from Lindisfarnna Vikings, and found it only after three hundred years, in 1104, fortunately, little damaged. Since then, Europe no longer knew rest - they appeared almost every year, then here, then there. To predict the direction of the next blow was absolutely impossible, as well as seriously, to resist the scandinances of military force - they slipped out of the hands, as if droplets of mercury; The army of the heirs of Karl Great or British kings simply did not have time to approach the place of the next attack.

However, we will tell about the further history of Viking campaigns some other time - this text was called upon to explain how the climatic and geographical features of the early Middle Ages predetermined the beginning of the era of the Norman conquests, which lasted three hundred years.