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Ancient Greek philosophers

Ancient Greek philosophy - philosophy arising in ancient Greece. The philosophy of ancient Greece is a combination of the exercises developed from the VI century to our era by the 6th century of our era. This millennium of the development of philosophical ideas demonstrates an amazing community, the mandatory focus on the union in a single cosmic union of nature, man and gods. In many ways, this is due to the pagan roots of Greek philosophy. For the Greeks, nature performs the main absolute, it is not created by the gods, the gods themselves are part of nature and personify the main natural elements. The person does not lose its original connection with nature, but it lives not only "by nature", but also "by establishing". The human mind in the Greeks was freed from the authorities of the gods, Greek respects them and will not insult, but in his daily life will rely on the arguments of the mind, relying on himself and knowing that not because the man is happy that they love the gods, but because gods Love a man that he is happy.

The most important discovery of the human mind for the Greeks is the law. The nature of Greek life explains the confidence of the Greeks to the mind, theory, and the worship of the impersonal Absolute (Nature) is constant proximity and even inseparable physics (exercises of nature) and metaphysics (exercises on the primacy of being). Confeimation - consideration of the problems of the worldview in the unity of nature, gods, a person - served as a justification for the norms of human life, the position of a person in the world, ways to achieve piety, justice and even personal happiness.

Rannagrechy natural philosophy is a way of philosophizing and a method of world-upsion. Actually, space is the cosmized world of human daily. In such a world, everything is associated, adjacent and arranged: Earth and rivers, sky and sun, - everything serves life. The natural environment of a person, his life and death, the light transcendant world of the gods, all the life of a person are described by the previously Greek natural philosophers and figuratively. Cosmos is not an abstract model of the Universe, but the human world, however, in contrast to the final person - the eternal and immortal.

Thanks to three, the most outstanding representatives of Greek philosophy - Socrates, Platon and Aristotle - , Approximately, for a thousand years became the center of Greek philosophy. Socrates for the first time in history sets the question of personality with its decisions, dictated conscience, and with its values. Plato created philosophy as the completed ideological-political and logical-ethical system; Aristotle - Science, as a research-theoretical study of the real world.

In general, ancient greek philosophy gave a sufficiently meaningful, ordered picture of the world. Typically, the beginning of an ancient Greek philosophy is associated with the name of Falez Miletsky (625 - 547 BC), the end - with the decree of the Roman emperor of Justinian on the closure of philosophical schools in Athens (529 years of our era).

Falez.

Falez (625 - 547 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher and mathematician from the Mileta (Malaya Asia). He is a representative of Ionian natural philosophy and the founder of the Miletsky (Ionian) school with which the history of European science begins. Traditionally, it is considered the founder of Greek philosophy (and science) - he, invariably, opened a list of "seven wise men", laid the foundations of Greek culture and statehood. Falez's name already in the V century BC became nominable for the sage. The "Father of Philosophy" and her "the height of the Falez" was already called in antiquity.

Fales was a noble Phoenician family and received a good education in his homeland. Fales was a merchant and traveled a lot. For some time, he lived in, in Fouves and Memphis, where he studied at the priests, studied the causes of flooding, demonstrated a method for measuring the height of the pyramids. It is believed that it was he "brought" geometry from Egypt and introduced the Greeks with her. Its activity attracted followers and students who formed Miletsky (Ionian) school, and from which Anaximander and Anaximen are most famous today.

Fales was a "subtle diplomat and a wise policy"; He tried to unwind the cities of Ionia into a defensive union against the powers of Ahemenide. In addition, Fales was a close friend of Miletsky Tirana Frasibul. Information about the life of Falez is scarce and contradictory, often carry an anecdical character.

Being a military engineer in the service of King Lydia Kröza, Fales, to facilitate the crossing of the troops, launched the Galis River on a new channel. Not far from the city of Mittel, he designed the dam and drainage channel and led them to the construction. This building significantly lowered the water level in Galis and made it possible to cross the troops.

In the era of Falez Greeks, and the whole world, we experienced a number of amazing discoveries. Fales "opened" for the Greeks of the constellation of a small marsh, as a travel tool; Earlier, the Phoenicians used this constellation. He first discovered the slope of ecliptic to the equator and spent five circles on the heavenly area: Arctic circle, summer tropic, heavenly equator, winter tropic, Antarctic circle. He learned to calculate the time of solstice and equinox, established the meaning of the gaps between them.

Falez first indicated that the moon shines with reflected light; That the eclipses of the sun occur when the moon closes him. He predicted a solar eclipse (585 to our era), after which he became famous. Falez first determined angular size Moon and sun; He found that the size of the Sun is 1/720 part of its circular path, and the size of the moon is the same part of the moon path. It can be said that Fales created the "mathematical method" in the study of the movement of the celestial bodies. In addition, Fales introduced the calendar in the Egyptian pattern (in which year consisted of 365 days, it was divided by 12 months to 30 days, and remained falling five days).

Fales understood the sense and in geometry. Falez first formulated and proved that the vertical angles are equal to that the equality of triangles on one side and two angles adjacent to it are that the angles at the base of an anose-free triangle are equal to that the diameter divides the circle into two equal parts, as well as the inscribed angle, Relying on the diameter is direct.

Fales knew how to determine the distance from the shore to the ship, for which she used the similarity of triangles. IN
the basis of this method is the theorem, called, subsequently, the Falez theorem: if parallel straight, crossing the angles, cut off equal segments on one side of it, then they cut off equal segments and on the other side of it. Being in Egypt Fales struck Pharaoh Amasis in that it was able to accurately set the height of the pyramid, waiting for the moment when the shadow length of the stick becomes equal to its height, and then measured the length of the shadow of the pyramid.

When Falez, because of his poverty, they reinforced the uselessness of philosophy, he, by making the stars to observe the conclusion about the coming yield of Maslin, hired all the oils in milt and in Chios. He hired them for a snot (because no one gave them more), and when it came to him and the demand for them suddenly increased, began to give them in their discretion. Collecting, therefore, a lot of money, he showed that philosophers, if desired, can easily get rich, but this is not what they care about. Vintage Fales predicted "by observing stars", that is, thanks to knowledge.

According to Falez, "water is the best." He announced that the whole world, everything is formed from the water. Everything is formed from the water by hardening / freezing, as well as evaporation; During concentration, water becomes land, when evaporation becomes air. The cause of education / motion is the spirit, "nesting" in the water. According to Falez, nature, both alive and non-fat, has a driving start, which is called such names as the soul and God. Cosmos animated and full of divine forces. The soul, as the active force and the carrier of rationality, is involved in the divine.

Fales assumed that the earth swims in water (like a piece of wood, a ship or any other body, which, by nature, is tested to keep afloat in water); Earthquakes, vortices and movements of the stars occur because everything swings on the waves due to water mobility. The sun and other celestial bodies feed on the evaporation of this water. Stars consist of the Earth, but, at the same time, decorable; And the sun and the moon - the earthen composition (consist of the earth). Also, he believed that the land was in the center of the Universe; With the destruction of the Earth, the whole world will collapse. That is, Fales argued that the Earth, like sushi, as the body itself, physically holds on a certain "support", which has properties of water (non-abstract, that is, specifically fluidity, instability, and the like). And around the Earth there is a treatment of heavenly phenomena, and thus it is Fales that is the founder of the geocentric system of the world.

Unfortunately, Falez's writings are not preserved. It is reported that all his legacy was only 200 poems written by a gecmeter. However, it is possible that Fales did not write anything at all, and everything known about his teachings comes from secondary sources.

The value of Falez philosophy is that it fixes the start of philosophical reflection on the physical world; The difficulty of studying is that due to the lack of reliable sources of Fales easily attribute thoughts characteristic of the early period of Greek philosophy, in general.

Anaximandr

Anaximandr Miretsky (610 - 540 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Falez Miretsky and anxameman teacher. He is the author of the first Greek scientific essay written by prose. Introduced the term "law" by applying the concept of social practice to nature and science. For the first time in Greece installed gnomon - the simplest sundial and improved the Babylonian sundial, which had the shape of a spherical bowl - the so-called Skafis.

Anaximandra is attributed to one of the first formulations of the law of conservation of matter. It was he who introduced a different concept of origin to the whole - Aperon. This uncertain substance "Volume of all worlds". Aceron, as a result of a vortex process, is divided into the physical opposites of hot and cold, wet and dry and so on, whose interaction generates spherical space. The confrontation of the elements in the emergence of cosmic vortex leads to the appearance and separation of substances. In the center of the vortex turns out to be "cold" - ground, surrounded by water and air, and outside the fire. Under the action of fire The upper layers of the air shell turn into a solid bark. This sphere of the hardened Aer is beginning to break the pairs of a boiling earth ocean. The shell does not stand and swell. At the same time, it should push the bulk of fire outside our world. So the sphere of motionless stars occurs, and the stars themselves become pores in the outer shell. Heavenly shining Anaximandr considered not separate bodies, but "windows" in opaque shells hiding fire.

Anaximander made up the first map of the Earth. The earth has a view of the part of the column - cylinder, diameter
the bases of which are three times higher than the height: "Of the two flat surfaces, we walk on one, and the other is the opposite." According to his theory, the Earth is ferry in the center of the world, without relying. The land is surrounded by the giant tubular rings-tori filled with fire. In the most close ring, where fire is a bit, there are small holes - stars. In the second ring with a stronger fire is one large hole - the moon. It can partially or completely overlap (so Anaximandr explains shift lunar phases and lunar eclipses). In the third, distant ring, there is a biggest hole, the size of the ground; Through it shines the strongest fire - the sun. Universe Anaximandra closes the heavenly fire.

Anaximandr believed that all heavenly luminaries are at different distances from the ground. Order
the following corresponds to the principle: the closer it is to the heavenly fire and, therefore, the farther from the Earth, the brighter. It is assumed that the Mathematical Principle is based on the universe: all distances are more than three. Anaximandr attempted to determine the numerical parameters of the world system. The sizes of the rings of the Sun are 27 or 28 times the size of the earth cylinder, the ring of the moon is 19 times higher than the Earth. The universe, by Anaximandra, develops in itself, without the intervention of the Olympic gods. The universe matches the central symmetric; From here, in the center of space of the Earth there is no reason to move in any direction. Thus, Anaximandr turned out to be the first one who suggested that the land is freely resting in the center of the world without support.

The final stage of the world appearance is the emergence of living beings. Anaximander suggested that all living beings occurred from the sediments of the dried seabed. All alive is generated by the evaporated Sun moisture; When the ocean rolls out, exposing the land, living beings arise "from the heated water from the earth" and are born "in moisture, enclosed inside or the shell." That is, natural development, according to Anaximandra, includes not only the emergence of the world, but also the self-fault of life.

Anaximandr considered the Universe of a similar living being. Unlike the unsalted time, it is born, reaches maturity, aging and must die to revive again.

Heraclit

Heraclit Efesse (544 - 483 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher. The founder of the first historical or initial form of dialectics. Heraclit was known as the gloomy or dark, and his philosophical system contrasted with the ideas of democritus. He is attributed to the authorship of the famous phrase "everything flows, everything changes."

Heraclit was born and lived in. According to some reports, belonged to the genus Basilevs (Zheleztsi kings with a purely nominal power), the descendants of Andrkl, however, voluntarily refused the privileges associated with the origin, in favor of his brother. Heraclitus, "having funny people, retired and began to live in the mountains, rummaged with grains and herbs." Heraclit "was not a draw of the listener." He was familiar with the views of the philosophers of the Miletsky school, Pythagora, Xenophane. He also did not have direct disciples, however, his intellectual effect on the subsequent generations of ancient thinkers significantly.

Heraclitis, materialist and dialectic, considered the primary justice of the world, for it is most mobile and capable of changing. The world has happened from the fire as a whole, individual things and even the souls. Fire is the most dynamic, changing from all elements. Therefore, for Herclite, the fire became the origin of the world, while water is just one of its states. The fire is thickened into the air, the air turns into water, water in the ground ("path down", which is replaced by "way up"). The Earth itself, on which we live, was the once-hot part of the universal fire, but then cooled. Changes between the fire, the sea and the earth establish the balance between themselves; Clean, or ether fire plays a decisive role.

Souls consist of fire; they arise from it and returned to it, moisture, fully absorbed by the soul,
leads her to death. Fire souls related to the fire of the world. Wakeful, sleeping and dead relationships by degree of fire in the shower. In a dream, the souls are partially separated from world fire and, thus, their activity is reduced.

Nature life is a continuous process of movement. "This space is the same for everyone, there will be forever alive fire, dimly married and measuringly fading." This, equally, applies to "psychray" - an ideal-subjective start of life. Inside, like nature, inherent "self-exploring Logos". Logos is the world soul, law, meaning, cosmos.

Herclite sets 4. various views Relations between obvious opposites:

a) The same things produce the opposite effect: "The sea - the water is purest and dirty: fish - drinking and saving, people - unsuitable for drinking and destroying"; "Mud pigs enjoy more than pure water"; "The most beautiful of the monkeys is distinguished in comparison with man."

b) various aspects of the same things may find opposite descriptions (letter - linear and rounded).

c) Good and desirable things, such as health or rest, look possible only if we recognize their opposite: "The disease makes pleasant and good health, hunger - satiety, fatigue - rest."

D) some opposites are essentially connected, as they follow each other, pursue each other and nothing but themselves. So hot-cold is a hot-cold continuum, these opposites have one entity, one total for the whole pair - temperature. Also, a couple of day - night - the temporal meaning of the "day" will be general for the opposites included in her opposites.

Heraklite God looks like immanent things or, as the sum of the opposites. Heraclit Net
associated God with the need for a cult or ministry. Wisdom consists in a true understanding of how the world is arranged. A wise can only be God, a man is endowed with reason and intuition, but not wisdom. God is a common connecting element for all opposite ends of any opposition. Total multiplicity of things, thus, forms a single, associated, a certain complex - unity.

Gloomy and controversial legends about the circumstances of the death of Heraclitus ("ordered to deceive himself with manure and, lying so, died," "was made of prey of dogs") some researchers interpret how evidence that the philosopher was buried in Zoroastrian customs. And the emperor Mark Azeri in his memoirs writes that Heraclit died from the dropsy, and the manure cheated as a means of illness.

Parmenid

Parmenid (520 - 450 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, founder and chief representative of the Elaska school. It is for him that the start of metaphysics. He addressed the issues of being and knowledge, laying the foundation of ontology and the origins of gnoseology; Divided the truth and opinion.

Parmenid came from a notable and rich family; He was distinguished by incomprehensibleness and even some madness. It was reached by his poem "On Nature". In it, the philosopher argues about the issues of knowledge and being. Parmenid argued that there is only an eternal and unchanged being, which is identified with thinking. According to his logic, it is impossible to think about non-existence, and therefore it does not exist. After all, the thought is contradictory. "There is something that is not." Genesis is not generated by anything; Otherwise, it would have to recognize that it had happened from non-existence, but there is no non-existence. There is no nonsense, since it is impossible to think about it. In addition, being is not affected by damage and death; Otherwise, it would turn into non-existence, and non-existence does not exist. Being has no past, no future. Being is clean present. It is motionless, uniformly, completely and limited; It has a ball shape.

The following statements of Parmenide reached us and the following statements: Being one, and there can be no 2 or more "being".
Otherwise, they would have to be excluded from each other - non-existence (and not). Being is solid (one), that is, does not have parts. If being has a part, then parts are excluded from each other - non-existence (and it is not). If there are no parts and if the Being is one, then there is no movement and there is no multiplicity in the world. IN otherwiseOne Genesis should move relative to the other. Since there is no movement and multiplicity and being one, then there is no emergence or destruction. So when (destruction) there must be non-existence (but there is no non-existence). Being is forever in the same place.

"Parmenid is a thinker of really extraordinary depth," Socrates said in the Dialogue of the Plato "Theette."

PROTAGOR.

Protigore (481 - 411 BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, a prominent representative of the Sofists. Also, they are referred to as skeptics and materialists. Acquired fame, thanks to teaching activities in the course of his perennial wanderings. Protagora belongs to the famous thesis "Man there is a measure of all things."

Protagor in youth engaged in carrying weights for money. One day, Democritus met him with a ligament of firewood. I was surprised how the firewood in Khpanka was rationally laid, suggested a protagodore to become his student. However, much indicates the anecdicality of this story, appealing to the fact that Protagor was much older than a democritus. And many people think that the democritus (along with Plato) referred to the number of those philosophers who experienced the greatest impact of the protagon.

Protigor won fame not only in many Greek cities, but also in Sicily and in,
it is, thanks to his teaching craft. For his teaching took high fees - it allowed him to travel a lot. His lectures enjoyed success in houses of famous and rich people interested in culture. From 484 to 406 to our era, closely communicated in Athens with Pericles and Euripid.

The philosopher Protagor is a pupil of Persian magicians, and, as well, the source of the sophistic lifestyle. Protagogor is also known for the fact that he laid the beginning of scientific grammar - the difference in the types of proposals, genera of the adjective and nouns, the ignition of verbs and times. He was taken, also for questions of the right speech. PROTAGOR enjoyed great authority from predecessors. It is the main hero of the dialogue of one of the works of Geraklid Pontic and Plato.

Protagur was a sensualist and taught the fact that the world as it is represented in human feelings. "A person is a measure of all things existing that they exist, and do not exist that they do not exist" (in other words: since people differ from each other, then there is no objective truth). "As we feel, so it really is." "Everything is there as it seems to us."

Protagor indicates the relativity of our knowledge, on the element of subjectivity in it. Subjectivism was understood by Protagogo, as a conclusion from the teaching of the heraclit on the general fluidity of things: if everything changes every moment, then everything exists only inspired, because it may be captured by an individual at one time or another; About everything we can say as something one, so, at the same time, and something else, which is contrary.

But, not everyone was ready to accept the philosophy of the prostagor. In 411 to our era in Athens for the composition of the "about the gods", in which he categorically doubts the existence of celersists, was accused of dishonor and worm and expensive. After that, soon died during shipwrecks on the way to Sicily.

Democritus

Democritis Abdersky (460 - 370 years BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, one of the founders of atomics and materialistic philosophy.

Born in the city of Abdara in Thrace. During his life, he traveled a lot, studying the philosophical views of various nations (ancient Egypt, Babylon, Persia ,,). Democrite has spent big money for these trips that he inherited. Inheritance waste, at that time, was pursued in court. At the trial, instead of his defense, Democritis read out the passages from his work, the "great Mirostroy", and was justified: the fellow citizens decided that the paternal money was spent not in vain.

Democritis was a very strange person. He constantly went out of the city, hidden in cemeteries, where far from the city bustle was indulging. In addition, democritus, without a visible reason, it broke out, so funny people seemed to him with human affairs against the background of a great world order. It was for this habit of democritus received a nickname "laughing philosopher". Many considered a democritus squeezed, and even invited to surpasses the famous Hippocratic doctor. But, he ruled that Democritis is absolutely healthy, both physically and mentally, and approved that democritus one of the most famous people with whom he had to communicate.

Democritis, practically, the first broadly unfolded the anthropological aspects of ancient Greek philosophy, discussing such issues as a person, God, the state, the role of the sage in Polis. Democritis believed that true suitable Can not, in itself, nor arise, nor disappear. Democritis was the first to express the idea that the world consists of atoms. At the same time, atoms are indivisible and unchanged particles of matter; It is in constant movement, and differ from each other only by form, order, magnitude and position. Atoms, according to this theory, move in an empty space (a great emptiness, as Democritis said) chaotically, face and, due to the correspondence of forms, sizes, provisions and orders, or are curved, or fly away.

The resulting compounds are held together and thus produce the occurrence of complex bodies. The same movement is a property that naturally inherent atoms. Body is a combination of atoms. A variety of bodies is due to the difference in the complications of their atoms, and the difference in the order of assembly, as from the same letters are made different words. Atoms cannot touch, because everything that has no emptiness is indivisible, that is, a single atom. Consequently, there is always between two atoms, at least, small gaps of emptiness, so even in ordinary bodies there is emptiness. It follows that when the atoms rapprochet on very small distances, the pushing force begins between them. At the same time, mutual attraction is possible between atoms, according to the principle of "similar to the like". Essentially, this clear statement of the principle of inertia is the foundations of all modern physics. From bodies expire, subtle shells (images) of things affecting the senses are separated. But, sensual perception gives only the "dark" knowledge of things; "Light", more subtle knowledge is achieved by means of mind. Democritis was "the most subtle of all the ancient thinkers."

The great emptiness is spatially infinite. In the initial chaos of atomic movements in the Great
The vortex spontaneously forms the vortex. Symmetry of the Great Empty is disturbed inside the vortex, there is a center and peripherals. The heavy bodies formed in the whirlwind tend to accumulate near the center of the vortex. The difference between light and severe is not high-quality, but quantitative, and there is already significant progress. In his desire to the center of the vortex, heavier bodies are crowded with more lungs, and those remain closer to the periphery of the vortex. In the center of the world, the land consisting of the most heavy atoms is formed. On the outer surface of the world, something like a protective film separating cosmos from the surrounding great emptiness is formed. Since the structure of the world is determined by the desire of atoms to the center of the vortex, the world of democritus has a spherically symmetric structure.

However, he was not a supporter of the theory of a spherical land. If the land was a ball, then the sun, entering and going ascending, would cross the horizon on the circumference arc, and not in a straight line, as in fact. According to Democritus, the order of the luminaire is the following: Moon, Venus, Sun, other planets, stars (as the distance from the earth increases). At the same time, the farther from us shone, the slower (in relation to the stars) it moves. In addition, Democritus believed that the fall of heavenly bodies to the Earth prevents centrifugal force. Democritus belongs to a brilliant guess that Milky Way It is a multitude of stars located on such a small distance from each other that their images merge into a single weak glow.

Worlds are infinite in terms of number and differ from each other in magnitude. All worlds move in different directions, since equal all directions and all states of movement. At the same time, worlds can face, destroying. If the formation of the world is happening now, then it should occur in the past somewhere, and in the future; Currently, different worlds are at different stages of development. During his movement, the world, whose education was not over, may accidentally penetrate the limits of a fully formed world and to be captured by him (so democritus explained the origin of heavenly shining in our world).

The main principle of human existence, Democritis considered in a state of a benevolent, serene arrangement of the Spirit, deprived of passions and extremes. This is not a simple only sensual pleasure, but the state of "peace, serenity and harmony". Democritus believed that all evil and misfortunes occur with a person due to the lack of needed knowledge. Hence he made the conclusion that the elimination of problems lies in the acquisition of knowledge. Democritis was a supporter of an ancient democracy and an opponent of a slave-owner aristocracy.

In the writings of ancient authors, about 70 different works of democritus are mentioned, from which, so far, not one has been preserved. There is a legend that Plato ordered to buy and destroy all the works of Democrita - his philosophical antagonist.

Socrates

Socrates (469 - 399 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, whose teaching marks turning in philosophy - from the consideration of nature and peace to the consideration of man. Its activity has opened a new course in the development of ancient philosophy. He sent the attention of philosophers to the importance of human personality. Socrates are called the first philosopher in his own sense of the word. In the face of Socrates, philosophizing thinking first addresses himself, exploring its own principles and receptions.

Socrates was the son of the sculptor sofronis and the obstacles of Fenarta, he had a senior brother of Mother Patrole, who inherited the property of his father. Born the 6th Fargelion in the unclean day of the Athenian calendar, Socrates became a "pharmacist", that is, a lifelong priest of the appearance of the Athenian state without a detention, and in archaic time could be sacrificed by the sentence of the people's assembly to solve the emergence of public problems. In his youth, led arts from Damon and Konon, listened to Anaksagora and Archeli, knew how to read and write, however, no essays left. He was married to the second marriage on a woman named Xantippa and had several sons from her, the youngest of which at the time of the death of the philosopher was seven years old.

Socrates led the lifestyle of the Athenian Parasitis and the poor sage and in peacetime never left the attic. It was famous for how an invincible debaters and a strainer who refused expensive gifts and always walked in old clothes and barefoot. Socrates believed that noble people will be able to manage the state without the participation of philosophers, but, protecting the truth, was often forced to take an active part in public Life Athens.

Participated in the Peloponnescent War - fought under the crowda, when Delia, with amphipole. He defended from the unfair court of a demos convicted to the death of strategists, including the son of his friends pericles and aspasia. He was a mentor of the Athenian policy and the commander of Alkiviad, saved his life in battle.

Socrates first noted that the previous philosophers do not answer questions: "How to live?" And "how to think?". True knowledge involves the knowledge of himself. Hence the famous formula: "Know yourself." The highest task of knowledge is not theoretical, but practical - the art of living. All his life Socrates spent in disputes and conversations. It believed that on the paths of the monologue, lonely thought lies false knowledge, imaginary wisdom. Socrates opened the method of the Maieftica - the method of finding truth by configuring opposite opinions about the subject, eliminating them through the formulation of new issues. Socrates argued that morality and virtue is identical to knowledge. A person who knows what kind of good, will not come bad. The bad acts are born only by ignorance and no one is evil by goodwill. "Know yourself" - this is the point of contact of philosophy, religion and psychology. Self-knowledge is a job; It underlies the entire culture, all practice and creativity. This appeal is not only addressed to a separate person, but also to nations.

A person for Socrates is a microcosm, reflecting social space. It is important that man had
a meaningful picture of this space. Socrates compared their studies with the "art of an obese grandmother"; His method of issues involving a critical attitude towards dogmatic statements was called the Socration Irony. Socrates did not write down his thoughts, believing that it loosens the memory. And his students led to a true judgment through a dialogue, where he asked the general question, having received an answer, asked the next clarifying issue and so on until the final response. At the same time, the opponent, knowing himself, often forced to admit that ridiculous.

Socrates saved the life of Alkiviad (if Alkiviad died, he could not harm Athens). He dismissed the Spartan Falang with one big battle, which was going to throw the wounded alkiviad spears, not one enemy warrior wanted the dubious glory of the murder or, at least, wounding the elderly sage. In 399 BC, residents presented the charges that "he does not honor the gods whom the city gives, but introduces new deities and is responsible for corrupting youth." Socrates rejected all charges in blasphemy and corruption of young people and stated "that there is no person more independent, fair and reasonable than Socrates." When Socrates were offered to appoint a fine, he himself did not appoint it himself, neither his friends allowed, but, on the contrary, he even said that he had a fine to appoint himself - it means to recognize himself guilty. Then, when friends wanted to kidnap him out of prison, he did not agree and, it seems even laughed at them, asking if they know such a place outside the attics, where there would be no access to death.

Before death, Socrates asked to sacrifice asccle of the rooster (usually this rite was committed as gratitude for recovery), symbolizing her death as recovery, exemption from earthly skills. According to Socrates, this liberation of the soul of the philosopher does not oppose, therefore, he is calm before the face of death. Socrates was poisoned by the Circuit. "Socrates first went, then said that the legs are heavy, and Loe on the back: so told that person. When Socrates Löh, he fell to him the feet and lower legs and a little time - again. Then he highly squeezed him the foot asked if he feels. Socrates answered that there is no. After that, he again fell his shin and, gradually by handing his hand, showed us how the body beats and kochenets. Finally, touched the last time and said that when the cold would go to the heart, he would move away. A little later, he shuddered, and the minister opened his face: Socrates was stopped. Seeing this, the crouton closed his mouth and eyes. "

Xenophon

Xenophon (430 - 356 BC) - famous ancient Greek writer, philosopher, historian, communion, political figure. His creativity was very valued by antique ribors, besides, it had a huge impact on Latin prose. The main essay of Xenophon is "Anabasis Kira".

Xenophon was born in Athens in a wealthy family, perhaps belonging to the riders. His children's and youthful years proceeded in the situation of the Peloponnesian war, which did not prevent him from obtaining not only military, but also a broad general education. From the young years has become a follower of Socrates.

After the Peloponess War was played by Sparta in 404 to our era, Xenophon left his homeland, joining the expedition of Kira. After the death of Kira himself, Xenophon boldly and skillfully led the retreat of ten thousand Greeks through enemy land. Xenophon did completely all the campaign - since the attack on Babylon and the battle of Kunakse, ending with the retreat through to the trapezon, and then west in Byzantium, Frakia and Pergam. It was in Pergamam Xenophon that became one of the strategists of the Greek troops. Since he became close to the Spartan king Assilat, and then he also went to Greece with him, then in Athens he was condemned for the state treason and confiscated property. Xenophon began to serve under the authorities of Agecilaty, participated in battles and campaigns against Sparta's enemies - even against Athens. When Spartans gave him a small estate near the Eldidian city of Skillunt, he settled there in privacy, began to engage in literary works.

Biographer Xenophon was diogen. All the philosophical ideas of that time, as well as the doctrine of Socrates - all this had a slight influence on the philosopher. But, this was quite bright in his religious views - for them, first of all, the faith in the intervention of the gods into the affairs of people, as well as faith in all sorts of signs, through which the gods report mortal will. True, the ethical views of Xenophon are not at all toward the capital morality, but its political sympathies are completely on the side of the Spartan aristocratic state device. In addition to historical books, wrote, also a number of philosophical. As a student of Socrates, it sought in a popular form to give an idea of \u200b\u200bhis personality and teaching.

Xenophon in its essay "about income" offered to the Athenian state to create, ultimately, a giant, at the time, the enterprise for the development of Lavria Silver Muses and to lead it to ensure the welfare of all Athenian citizenship.

Plato

Plato (428 - 347 BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Socrates, Teacher Aristotle. Plato is one of the greatest philosophers of ancient Greece and, so far, remains the largest philosopher of Western Europe.

Plato is the first philosopher whose writings have not been preserved in short passages cited by others, but completely. Plato was born in Athens in the midst of the Peloponnesian war between Athens, Ariston, who had an aristocratic origin, the family, Ariston, was appreciated, according to legends, to the last Tsar of Attica - Kodper, and the ancestor of the mother, Perktoni, was the Athenian Reformer Solon. The Pencione was a sister of Harmita and Crete, two famous figures from the number of thirty tyrants of the short-lived oligarchic regime that followed the collapse of Athens at the end of the Peloponnesian war. According to the ancient tradition of his birthday, 7 Targelion is considered to be 7 Targelion (May 21), a festive day, which, according to mythological legend, the God of Apollo was born on the island of Delos. The real name of Plato is an aristoclon (literally, "the best glory"). The nickname Plato (from the Greek word "Plato" - latitude), meaning "wide, broadcaster", gave a wrestler Ariston from Argos, his gym teacher, for the strong addition of Plato. Some believe that it is so nusted over the breadth of his word, and Neanf - for a wide forehead.

At about 408 to our era, Plato met the "wise of Ellini" - Socrates, he became one of his students philosophy; Before that, he studied poems. Socrates is an unchanged participant, practically all the works of Plato, written in the form of dialogues between historical and sometimes fictional characters. During the trial of Socrates, Plato was among his students who offered a cash pledge for him. After the sentence, Plato fell ill and was not present at the last conversation in the dungeon.

After death, Socrates in 399 BC Plato, with some other disciples, moves to Megara. Plato developed the theory of the ideal state. Philosophers take on the management of the state, since only they are able to comprehend the idea (essence, problems) of the state. Warriors protect the state, and simply work. Everyone occupies its place in the state, each layer of society corresponds to its level of intelligence, human soul and virtue. For Plato, the state is the embodiment of the law, order and measures.

In 389, Plato went to Sicily, so that with the help of Dionysius Syracuse to establish a perfect state there, in which philosophers instead of a bowl with poison would receive the reign of the reign. Plato invited himself to the teacher's brother's brother of Syracuse Tirana Dionysius I, Dion. Dion dreamed that Plato would be able to influence Tirana with the help of philosophy and would improve his board. Dionysius was a very suspicious person and eventually sent Plato home together with the ambassador, which was instructed to kill or sell into solvent philosopher. Ambassador Pollida sells Plato to slavery on the island of Aegina, where he bounces one of his admirers.

In 386, Plato returns to Athens, where he begins to collect around himself a circle of students, with whom talking about philosophy in the suburban public garden (approximately, in a kilometer from Athens), and establishes the Academy.

The foundation of the philosophy of Plato - the doctrine of ideas. He believed that everything existing in the world had his idea. Ideas are superfluid samples of things. Ideas point to essential properties, composition and structure of things, for its purpose and meaning. Ideas are primary, eternal. Real trees die, the drawing of the triangle can be erased, but the ideas of the tree and triangle are eternal and immortal. In particular, ideas are managed by the Universe. Ideas organize matter as messy mass. Matter is "non-existence" ("Menon"), which makes the definition of ideas. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe good idea of \u200b\u200bbeauty, the idea of \u200b\u200btruth, grows the pyramid of ideas.

The theory of knowledge of Plato is based on his teaching about the soul and memories. The immortal soul, in contact with things, is remembered with which she dealt in the world of ideas. These guys, genuine faces, are captured in our soul. After all, the soul is immortal and carries this immortal knowledge. Reliable knowledge is possible only about true "species", that is, about ideas. On sensual things and phenomena perhaps not knowledge, but likely "opinion." The main method of knowledge is dialectic, that is, the ability to reduce everything private and one to the overall feature. Plato often opposes the soul and body as two heterogeneous entities. The body is decomposable and mortal, and the soul is eternal. Unlike the body that you can destroy, the soul can not interfere forever. If we agree that the harm is shrinking the shock and dishonor, it is even in this case it remains to recognize that the defect does not lead to death to death, but simply perverts it and makes it wicked. What is unable to die from any evil can be considered immortal: "Once something does not die from one of these evils - neither from his own, nor from an outsider, it is clear that it certainly must be something ever existing, and since it forever exists, it is immortal. "

Plato gave famous image of the soul chariot. He painted the following picture: "Like a soul
the connected strength of the winged pair of the harness and the ease. The gods and horses and the arms are all noble and come from noble, and the rest of them are mixed origin. Firstly, this is our lord of the rules, and then, and the horses of him - one is beautiful, noble and born from the same horses, and another horse is his opposite and ancestors of him - other. It is inevitable that we edit us is a serious and boring business. " The rain is depicting here a mind, a good horse - the skill of the soul, and the bad horse is a passionate or emotional part of the soul.

In the "State" dialogue, Plato disassembles these three components of human psyche in more detail. So, he likes the intelligent part of the soul - the shepherd of herd, the volitional or fierce part of the soul - the concomitant shepherds of dogs that helps him be managed with the herd, and unreasonable, the passionate part of the soul he calls the herd, the virtue of which is to obey the shepherd and dogs. Thus, Plato highlights three starts of the soul:

1) a reasonable principle facing knowledge and all the conscious activities.

2) violent beginning, aspiring about the order and overcoming difficulties. Violent start is particularly noticeable in man, "When he believes that he does unfairly, he boosts, annoyed and becomes an ally of what he seems to be fair, and for this, he is ready to transfer hunger, Study and all those like this flour, just to win ; He will not give up his noble aspirations - either to achieve his own, or die, except for his arguments of his own mind. "

3) Passionate principle, expressed in countless man's lusts. This is the beginning, "because of which a person falls in love with hunger and thirst and is covered by other lusts, we will call the beginning of the unreasonable and lustful, close friend of all kinds of satisfaction and pleasures."

Further, in the course of reasoning, Plato notes: "When the soul and body are connected, the nature of the magnitude of the body obey and be a slave, and the soul to rule and be mrs. Having accepted it in a consideration, tell me that of them, in your opinion, closer to the Divine and that mortal? Do not you think that the Divine is created for power and the manager, and the mortal - for subordination and slavery? "Yes, it seems that his interlocutor answers. - So with what is the soul? - The soul is similar to the Divine, and the body with mortals. "

Plato introduces ethical and religious moments in their doctrine of the immortality of the soul. So, in particular, he mentions the possibility of posthumous punishment and the awards of the soul for her earthly accomplishment. In the dialogue "State", he leads the mythological tale of the posthumous fate of human souls, allegedly known from the words of a certain Pamphilian Era, who "somehow he was killed in the war; When in ten days they began to pick up the bodies already decomposed the dead, he was still found in the whole, they brought home, and when they started the burial on the twelfth day, then she was already on the fire, he suddenly came to life, and revived, said he saw there. "

The greatest merit of Plato in front of philosophy - to the opening of the objective existence of the world of ideas (mind), as the formative start of the world. Without this discovery, no philosophy is impossible, no science, no human knowledge. In the ideas of Plato, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe laws of nature and society is expressed. The art of understanding the world is available to the one who mastered the highest ideas. At the same time, the "Operation" with ideas Platon exposed focus, the rod of all philosophizing. In order to ask about the meaning of things or peace as a whole, you need to go beyond the limits of phenomena or peace, ask where they and why do you mean, are real or not, what is hiding behind them?

Plato's philosophy is a unique attempt to unite the world of meanings (ideas) with phenomena of physical and social space. Installation for the comprehension of ideas, reasonable understanding of the world perpetually perpetuated the name of Plato. In the dialogue "State" is given a concept about the idea of \u200b\u200bgood, as the highest object of knowledge. The word "good" means not just something, estimated ethically positive, but also ontological perfection, for example, the quality of the concrete thing, its utility and high quality. Breeding cannot be determined as pleasure, because you have to admit that there are bad pleasures. Bless it is impossible to call what only benefits us, because, it can harm the other. The benefit of Plato is "good in itself."

Plato likes the idea of \u200b\u200bthe good the sun. IN visible world The sun is prerequisiteThe fact that objects become available to vision and the fact that a person gets the ability to see objects. Exactly, in the sphere of pure knowledge, the idea of \u200b\u200bthe good becomes a prerequisite for the knowledge of the ideas themselves, and the ability of a person to know the ideas.

According to ancient legends, Plato died on his birth day in 347 BC (13th year of the Board of the Macedonian Tsar Philip). He was buried at the Academy. It is believed that he was buried under the name of the aristocals.

Diogenes

Diogen Sinopsky (412 - 323 years BC) - an ancient Greek philosopher, a student of Antisphen, the founder of the school of ignition. The most famous from the cynical philosophers, Diogen Sinop served as an example for the sage - Cynic in ancient times. Diogen supports asceticism and focuses on ethics, but brings the dynamism and sense of humor to these philosophical positions, unsurpassed in the history of philosophy. Until now, discussed whether Diogen left something in writing after himself. As a cynic, Diogen lived and composed in two components of ethical practice, but, Diogen is very like Socrates, and even on Plato in his feelings relative to the superiority of direct oral interaction on a written account.

The philosopher Diogen was the son of the remedies of Gikesia. Diogen was a Sinez citizen who or escaped or was exiled due to currency problems. Once in the delta, he questions about the oracle, which he was doing what the answer was received: "Revaluation of values." Initially, he understood this saying, as the "Coin List", however, being expelled, he realized his calling in philosophy. Diogenes moved to Athens. He arranged to his dwelling near the Athenian Agora in a large clay vessel - Pyfos, who burned in the ground and in which the grain was kept, wine, butter or hurried people. Once the boy broke his house. Later, the Athenians provided him with a new Pyphos.

Once a philosopher Aristipp, who has acquired a fortune, praising Tirana, saw how Diogen washes lentils, and said: "If you glorified Tirana, you would not have to eat lentils!". What Diogen objected: "If you had learned to eat lentils, you would not have to glorify Tirana!".

When the Athenians were preparing for the war with Philip Macedonian and a vanity and excitement reigned in the city, Diogen began to roll along the streets there and here his clay barrel in which he lived. To the question, why he does, Diogen answered: "Everyone has troubles, because I'm not good to idle, but I ride Pyphos, because I do not have anything else."

Diogen proclaimed the ideal of asceticism on the example of a mouse, which was not afraid of anything, did not seek anything and was satisfied with small. The life of Diogenes in the clay jug - Pyfos, the use of a raincoat instead of bed illustrated this principle. From things he had only a bag and staff. Sometimes he was seen by the walking bare in the snow. The meaning of asceticism was that genuine happiness lies in freedom and independence. Diogene asked the alignment from the statues, "to accustom himself to failures."

Diogen has repeatedly argued with Plato. One day, fucked the mat, he exclaimed: "Topchu is a plate of Plato." When Plato is crushing, that a person is a "biting without feathers," the Diogen lookedched the rooster and called him by Platonian man. When Plato asked who Diogen, he replied: "Socrates crazy." Seeing the meager lifestyle of Diogen, Plato remarked that even in slavery from Tirana Siracuz Dionysius he was not soap himself vegetables, to which he received the answer that if soap vegetables himself, it would not be in slavery.

Diogen participated in the Heronese battle, but he captured to the Macedonians. On the slave market for the question of what he can, replied: "Tormit people." I bought it someone Kseniad, as a mentor to my children. Diogenes taught them horseback riding, throwing darts, as well as history and Greek poetry.

Diogen was a very rapid man. He was racing contemporaries, in particular, she took food on the square (during the time of Diogen, the public reception of food was considered an interpreneurous) and openedly engaged in her handkerching, while saying: "That's kaba and hunger it was possible to hurt, rubbing the belly!". One day, Diogen on the city square began to read the philosophical lecture. Nobody listened to him. Then Diogenes ended in birds, and a hundred zooer gathered around. "Here, the Athenians, the price of your mind," Diogen told them. "When I told you smart things, no one paid attention to me, and when she was swinging, like an unreasonable bird, you listen to me by revealing the mouth." Diogenes considered the Athenian unworthy to be called people. He mocked the religious ceremonies and despised the believing snotters.

When Alexander Macedonsky came to the Attika, then, of course, wanted to get acquainted with the famous "marginal", like many other. Alexander waited for a long time, while Diogen himself comes to him to witness his respect, but the philosopher quietly spent the time. Then Alexander decided to visit him himself. And, finding Diogenes in Krai (in the gymnasium not far from Corinth), when he warmed up in the sun, came to him and said: "I am the great king Alexander." "And I," answered Diogen, - Diogen's dog. " "And for what's your name is a dog?" "Who will throw a piece - I am wable, who will not quit - we have, who evil person - Kusay. " "Are you afraid of me?" - asked Alexander. "And what are you, - asked Diogen, is evil or good?" "Good," he said. "And who is afraid of good?" Finally, Alexander said: "ask me what you want." "Out, you will challenitate the sun," said Diogen and continued to warm up. On the way back, Alexander noted: "If I were not Alexander, I would like to become a diogen."

Ironically, Diogenes died in one day with Alexander Macedonian. On his grave was erected by a marble monument in the form of a dog, with epitaph:

Let me be copper under the rule of time - yet

I will survive the century of the fame of your, diogen.

You taught us how to live, pleaseing what you have

You pointed to us the way, the easier of which is not.

Aristotle

Aristotle (384 - 322 years before our era) - an ancient Greek philosopher. Plato's student. From 343 to our era - the teacher Alexander Macedonsky. Naturalist classic period. The most influential of antiquity philosophers; The founder of formal logic. Aristotle was the first thinker who created a comprehensive philosophy system that covered all spheres of human development: sociology, philosophy, politics, logic, physics. His views on ontology had a serious impact on the subsequent development of human thought. Karl Marx called Aristotle the greatest thinker of antiquity.

Aristotle was born in Stagir (therefore, he received a stagni nickname), a Greek colony in Chalkidiki, not far from the Athos Mountain. Aristotle's father - Nicknames from Andros. The mother of festideo came from Halkida Evoby. Aristotle was a pure Greek on the Father and the Mother. Nicknames, the father of Aristotle, was the hereditary asclepiad and erected his rhodium to the Homer Hero Mahaon, the son of Asclepia. The Father of the Philosopher was a court doctor and friend Aminte III, Father Philip II and grandfather Alexander Macedonsky. He was the first aristotle mentor, because Askletpadov had a tradition to train their children from little age. Apparently, with this, his interest in biology began.

However, Aristotle's parents died when he had not yet reached the age of majority. In seventeen years old
age Aristotle arrived in Athens. At Plato Academy, Aristotle stayed 20 years, until the death of his teacher. In their relationship, both positive and negative points are distinguished. The fact is that Aristotle suffered by speech defects, there was a "short-legged, with little eyes, wore elegant clothes and a trimmed beard." Plato did not approve, neither the lifestyle of Aristotle, nor his drawing to dress. "And some ridicule was on his face, inappropriate chatter, also testified of his character."

After Plato's death, Aristotle, together with xenocrat, airstrike and Korean is sent to the Assos, the coastal city of Malaya Asia, located opposite the island of Lesbos. During his stay in Assocos, Aristotle got close to Herrum. Proximity contributed to the fact that Aristotle took his reception daughter and niece Pythiad, who gave him a girl who received the mother's name. Pythyada was not the only woman Aristotle. After her death, he illegally took herpellid's maid in wives, from which the Son had, named, in ancient Greek tradition, in honor of the father of Nikomakh.

After a three-year stay in Assos, Aristotle went to Lesbos Island and stopped in the city of Mitel, where he taught until he received an invitation from Philip II to become an educator of the royal son Alexander. Aristotle began to teach Alexander when he was 14 years old. Aristotle taught Alexander a variety of sciences, including medicine. The philosopher instilled in Tsarevich's love for Gomeov's poetry, so, in the subsequent, the list of "Iliads", which Aristotle was for Alexander, the king will be kept along with the dagger under the pillow. In 335/334, Aristotle suspends the upbringing of Alexander, due to the fact that the father of the latter was killed and the young Tsarevich had to take power into his hands.

For the entire philosophy of Aristotle, the idea of \u200b\u200bimplementing the form, the paradigm of the mind, both in the things themselves and in systematic thinking. It is the founder of formal logic. From Aristotle, science begins as a way to produce knowledge about the world, with the help of logical-conceptual funds. All the philosophy of Aristotle divided into three parts: theoretical, the purpose of which knowledge of the sake of knowledge, a categorical analysis of the existing, on a practical or "philosophy of human", and on the poetic or creative, the purpose of which to give knowledge for creativity. The Aristotle was written by natural-scientific treatises "On Physics", "On Heaven", "On Parts of Animals", in particular, the treatise "On the Soul". Considering the soul of the beginning of life, it gives the typology of the soul levels; It highlights the plant, animal and reasonable soul.

One of the central teachings of the "first philosophy" of Aristotle is the doctrine of four reasons, or
initiate. In "Metaphysics" and other works, Aristotle develops the doctrine of the causes and initially all things. The reasons are these:

1. Matter - "What". The diversity of things that exist objectively; Matter is eternal, irrelevant and non-profit; It cannot arise from nothing, to increase or decrease in its quantity; It is inert and passive.

2. Form - "What". Essence, stimulus, purpose, and also, the cause of the formation of diverse things from monotonous matter.

3. Acting, or producing reason - "That where". Characterizes the moment of time from which the existence of things begins. The beginning of all the God began to be.

4. Goal, or the final reason - "That for which". Each thing has its own private purpose. The highest goal is benefit.

The basic concepts of space and time begin with Aristotle:

Substantic - considers space and time as independent entities, originated by the world.

Relational. According to this concept, space and time is not independent entities, but the relationship systems formed by interacting material objects.

Space and time categories are like "Method" and the number of movement, that is, as a sequence of real and mental events and states, and therefore organically related to the principle of development. The concrete embodiment of beauty, as the principle of world device Aristotle seen in the idea or mind.

He denied the interference of the gods into the affairs of the world and proceeded from the recognition of the eternity of matter, which has an internal source of movement. Like a democritus, he argued that the world consists of atoms and emptiness. According to Aristotle, the world movement is a solid process: all of its moments are mutually due to the presence of a single engine. God is the first cause of the movement, the beginning of all began, since there can be an endless series of reasons or original. The absolute start of any movement is a deity, as a global overseas substance. Aristotle denied the existence of a deity with the discretion of space improvement principle.

Aristotle believed that the soul with integrity is nothing but an inseparable from the body its organizing principle, a source and method of regulating the body, its objectively observed behavior. The soul is the bodies entelech. The soul is inseparable from the body, but Immatourical herself, Necuese. Then, thanks to which we live, we feel and reflect, it's a soul. "The soul is the reason, like where the movement, as a goal and, as the essence of animated tel." Thus, the soul is a sense and form, not matter, not a substrate. Aristotle gave an analysis of different parts of the soul: memory, emotions, transition from sensations to a general perception, and from it - to a generalized representation; From the opinion through the concept of knowledge, and from the directly perceived desire - to a reasonable will.

The basis of experience - in sensations, memory and habit. Any knowledge begins with sensations: it is what is able to take the form of sensually perceived objects without their matter; The mind sees common in one. The feelings of Aristotle considered reliable, reliable evidence of things, but staging added that, in itself, the feelings cause only the first and lowest level of knowledge, and a person rises to the highest step, thanks to a generalization in the thinking of public practice.

There are two starts in man: biological and public. From the moment of its birth, the person does not remain alone with himself; It is attached to all the accomplishments of the past and present, to the thoughts and feelings of all mankind. Man's life outside society is impossible.

Aristotle taught that the land, which is the center of the Universe, Sharotrova. The proof of the Sharo-formality of the Earth Aristotle saw in the character of lunar eclipses, in which the shadow, thrown on the moon, has a rounded shape around the edges, which may only be subject to the shag-likeness of the Earth. Recalling the approval of a number of antique mathematicians, Aristotle considered the circumference of the Earth equal to 400 thousand stages (about 71,200 km). Aristotle, in addition, the first proved the balloon and the moon, based on the study of its phases. The universe consists of a number of concentric spheres moving at different speeds and driven by the extreme sphere of fixed stars. Schro-form and heavenly arch and all heavenly shine. However, aristotle proved this idea incorrectly, based on the teleological idealistic concept. The sphericalness of the heavenly luminaries Aristotle deduced from that false look that the so-called "sphere" is the most advanced form.

"Diluted world", that is, the area between the orbita of the Moon and the center of the Earth, there is an area of \u200b\u200bdisorderly uneven movements, and all the bodies in this area consist of four lower elements: earth, water, air and fire. Earth, as the most difficult item takes central place. The shells of water, air and fire are consistently located above it. "Outloign World", that is, the area between the orbita of the moon and the extreme sphere of fixed stars, there is an area of \u200b\u200bever-income movements, and the stars themselves consist of the fifth, perfect element - ether. Ether (the fifth element) is part of the stars and sky. It is a divine, non-permanent, and he is completely unlike other four elements. Stars, according to Aristotle, fixedly fortified in heaven and turn together with him, and "wandering shining" (planets) move along seven concentric circles. The cause of heavenly movement is God.

The philosopher created the doctrine of the state and the civil community that arose natural through such
primary social associations, like a family, village. The philosopher analyzed the "Right" forms of political rule (monarchy, aristocracy and politics) and "wrong" (tyranny, oligarchy, democracy). Aristotle criticized the teaching of Plato about the perfect. He believed that the commonality of property, wives and children offered by Plato would lead to the destruction of the state. Aristotle was a convinced defender of the rights of the individual, private property and a monogamous family, as well as a supporter of slavery. However, Aristotle did not recognize the reasoning the appeal of prisoners of war in slavery, according to his opinion, slaves should be those who possess physical strength do not have reason.

The first result of the social life of Aristotle considered the education of the family - husband and wife, parents and children ... The need for mutual exchange led to the communication of families and villages. So there was a state. The state is created not to live at all, but live, mainly happily. The state occurs only when communication is created for the sake of the good life between families and childbirth, for the sake of perfect and sufficient for life itself. The nature of the state is "ahead" of the family and individual. He highlighted the three main layers of citizens: very prosperous, medium, extremely poor. According to Aristotle, the poor and rich "are in the state elements, diametrically opposed to each other, which, depending on the advantage of one or another of the element, the corresponding form of the state system is established." The best state is such a society that is achieved by means of an average element (that is, the "average" element between slave owners and slaves), and those states have the best system where the average element is presented in more. When in the state many persons are deprived of political rights when there are many poor people in it, then in such a state, hostile elements are inevitable.

Politics - science, knowledge of how to organize the best life of people in
state. Politics is the art and ability of public administration. The purpose of the policy is a fair (general) benefit. It is not easy to achieve this goal. The politician must take into account that people have not only virtues, but also vice. Therefore, the task of politics is not the education of morally perfect people, but the upbringing of virtues in citizens. The virtue of the citizen is in the ability to fulfill its civic duty and in the ability to obey the authorities and laws.

Interesting the works of Aristotle and in biology. Aristotle adhered to the opinion that, which is more perfect, the creation, the better its form, but, at the same time, the form does not determine the content. He highlighted three types of soul:

The vegetable soul responsible for reproduction and growth;

Feeling soul responsible for mobility and feelings;

Rational soul capable of thinking and reasoning.

He attributed the presence of the first soul to plants, the first and second - animals, and all three to a person. Aristotle, Following the Egyptians, believed that the place of rational soul in the heart, and not in the brain. Interestingly, Aristotle was one of the first to divide the feeling and thought.

Aristotle recognized the existence of two kingdoms in the surrounding world: inanimate and lively nature. Plants he believed to animate, wildlife. According to Aristotle, plants have the lowest stage in the development of the soul, compared with animals and man. Aristotle noted in the nature of plants and animals some common properties. He wrote, for example, that in relation to some inhabitants of the sea is difficult to solve, plants are or animals.

Actually, Aristotle ends the classic period in the development of Greek philosophy. Aristotle died of stomach disease. His body was transferred to Stagira, where grateful fellow citizens erected a philosopher crypt. In honor of Aristotle, the festivities that carried the names of Aristothelius were established, and the month in which they were held, Aristotleus was named.

Piron

Pierron from Elida (360 - 275 years BC) - ancient Greek philosopher. The founder of an ancient skeptical school. He adhered to the opinion that nothing, in fact, is neither wonderful nor ugly, nor fair, neither unfair, since, in itself everything is equally, and therefore, it is not more than one thing. All unequal, different is (arbitrary) by human establishments and customs. Things are not available for our knowledge; This is based on the method of abstinence from judgment. As an almost moral ideal method, "non-vulnerable", "serenity" (atraxia) is deducted from here.

Pyrrhon's teaching is called pyronism. This name in meaning is identified with skepticism. The most important source for the study of his theory is the work of the sext of the Empirika "Pitchpins". Pierron became famous for the fact that, as a thinker, proclaimed the principle of "abstinence from judgments". It is based on the basic method of philosophy and philosophizing. The subject of philosophy in skepticism implies nomination to the first plan of ethical issues. People understanding in philosophy began to nominate issues that concerned life in the changed and, while still, an unstable world. The secondary nature was in question, in accordance with whom, they tried to understand how the world was arranged.

Philosophy, according to the philosopher, is a science that helps in the fight against dangers, freeing from unrest, which helps in overcoming difficulties. Therefore, Pierron is a sage, not theoretics. He could answer about how to cope with any life problems. Pierron thought the philosopher is a man who sought happiness as such. It, in his opinion, was the lack of suffering and non-trafficability to the whole occurring in life. Parron himself believed that it was impossible to say about things something defined. Each subject of life can be described in different ways. It is impossible to judge it categorically.

Sensual impressions are what needs to be perceived without skepticism. If a person finds something sweet or bitter, then it is. This is from here and the deadpornation arises, which will result in obtaining the highest happiness.

Theophrast.

Theophratcher, or Feofrast, (370 - 287 years BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, naturalist, music theorist. Along with Aristotle, the founder of botany and geography of plants. Thanks to the historical part of his teaching about nature, as a hencercharge of the history of philosophy (especially psychology and the theory of knowledge).

Born in the family climbed Malenta on Lesbos. At birth, I had the name of the Tirts. Theophrass ("theworship") called him later. He was a disciple of Plato, spent a long time in Athens, after the death of his teacher went to school to Aristotle and soon became his favorite student. Traditions argue that he received his name from Aristotle. Theophrasta took the Macedonian King Cassandr, the founder of the Alexandrian Museion Demetrius Falersky and the successor to the head of the Likua Straton. I lived 85 years old and buried with honors in Athens.

Theophrass left behind more than two hundred scientific papers on a wide variety of topics. The influence of the works of the theofora for the subsequent development of botany, for many centuries, was huge, since scientists of the ancient world did not rise above him, nor in the understanding of the nature of plants, nor in the descriptions of their forms. In accordance with the current level of knowledge, the individual provisions of the theophra store were naive and not scientific. Scientists of that time have not yet had high research techniques, there were no scientific experiments. But, with all this, the level of knowledge achieved by the "Father Botany" was very significant. In his writings, the "History of Plants" and "Causes of Plants" presented the basics of the classification of plants and their physiology, as well as, more than five hundred plant species are described. He outlined the most important problems of scientific plant physiology with turning. What are the distinguished plants from animals? What bodies exist in plants? What is the activity of the root, stem, leaves, fruits? Why are plants get sick? What effect on vegetable world Warm and cold, humidity and dryness, soil and climate? Can the plant arise to themselves (arbitrarily nascent)? Can one type of plants go to another?Theophrast One of the first suggested that nature develops and acts on the basis of its own interests, and not in order to be a useful person. Also, the scientist described the function and physiological features of the root, leaves, stalks and fruits of plants.

The largest fame acquired the work of theofast "On the properties of human morals" in which he
masterfully described the character traits of a person, providing them with bright examples of behavior of certain people in different situations. This is a collection of 30 essayers of human types, where the smoothie, bustle, Bowl, Pride, Boltun, are deposited, and so on, and everyone is described in bright situations in which this type is manifested. So, when the collection of donations, miser, not to mention the word, leaves the meeting. Being the captain of the ship, he stacked to sleep on the Mattress of Kormchego, and for the holiday of the music (when it was customary to send a remuneration to the teacher) leaves children at home. Often they speak about the mutual influence of the characters of the peophed and characters of the new Greek comedy. Undoubtedly its influence on all the newest literature.

The thinker paid a lot of attention to the study of the nature and purpose of music, from his two-volume work "On music" to us only a fragment, from which it can be concluded that the theophraist denied the adopted, at that time, an understanding of music, as a sounding incarnation of numbers (Pythagorean-Platonovskoe Teaching). In his work, the following says: "The nature of music is not in numbers and not in the interval movement, but in the shower that gets rid of evil after experience. Do not be this movement of the soul, there would be no essence of music. "

Epicur

Epicurus (341 - 270 years BC) - ancient Greek philosopher, founder of epicrase in Athens ("Garden of Epicur"). Epicur founded one of the main philosophical positions of ancient Greece, helping to lay intellectual foundations for modern science and for secular individualism. Many aspects of his thoughts are still very relevant, after about twenty-three centuries.

Athenian Epicur, the son of Neokla and Herestrate, grew up on the island of Samos and from 14 (according to other information, from 12) years began to be interested in philosophy. At 18, he arrived in Athens. At the age of 32, he founded his philosophical school, which was originally in Mitilylene (on the island of Lesbos) and Lammadcake (at the Asian Strait of the Dardanell, and from 306 to our era - in Athens. In this city, Epicur with his students settled in the garden purchased to them (hence the name of Epicureans: "Garden Philosophers"). In the Garden, Epicur and his friends were thinking about and reflected on their ideals of human life, speaking of philosophical problems, but, deliberately, separating them directly from active involvement in social affairs. Above the entrance was hanging there: "Guest, you will be fine here. Here pleasure is the highest good. "

The epicuris sincerely accepted the atomism of Leucipppa and Democritus, arguing that all objects, including events and human life, are in reality, nothing more than physical interaction in an indestructible particle medium. Since they fall to the center of the Earth, the deviation of atoms from their paths, which face each other and form a temporary existing being. There is no need for the obligatory procedure; Everything happens by chance.

The universe is the result of the collision and separation of atoms, in addition to which there is nothing but an empty space. Epicur believed universe is infinite. In space between these worlds, immortal and happy, gods live, without worrying about peace and people. In the same way, living beings arise and disappear, as well as the soul, which consists of the finest, lightest, most round and moving atoms.

An explanation of natural phenomena from Epicur is extremely close to the point of view of the physicists of the new time. It stops on the origin of such phenomena, like thunder, zipper, wind, snow, rainbow, earthquake and comet. Epicuri consider an empirical science operator. The mind epicuria considered completely dependent on sensations. Because sensual knowledge, according to the epicurus, is inflictly, so far the mistakes in knowledge or delusion occur from erroneous judgments about what is given in sensations. "A shaped thoughts" is defined as intuition or intellectual intuition. According to the epicurus, "True only what is available to observation or is consistent with the throw of thought," and "the main sign of perfect and complete knowledge is the ability to quickly use thoughts of thought."

Unlike the Stoikov, the epicurus was not interested in participating in daily politics, believing that it leads to trouble. Epicur preached the principle of "Live Notice" believed that it was necessary to go through life, not attracting attention to himself; Do not strive for glory, power or wealth, but to enjoy small joys of life - delicious food, friends and so on.

Laws and punishments are necessary for hold in the fool's ultrasound, due to which the contract may suffer.
However, the wisdom of the benefits of the contract is obvious and in view of the fact that his desires are small, he has no need for violation of laws. Laws useful for human communication and happiness are fair, useless - unfair. Epicur believed that in various geographic locations, people, under the influence of the same things, published various sounds (due to the various influence of the medium on human lungs). Thus, the first words pronounced by people were different, and therefore became different languages.

Epicura philosophy combines physics based on atomistic materialism with rational hedonistic ethics, which emphasizes the slowdown in desires and cultivation of friendship. His worldview is very optimistic, and emphasizes that philosophy can free a person from fears before death and supernatural, and can teach us how to find happiness in almost any situation. His practical ability Penetration into the essence of human psychology, as well as its worldview favorable for science, has a greater modern importance for epicoreism, as well as plays a chant role in the intellectual development of Western civilization.

The philosopher died "from the kidney stone" in 271 or 270 BC.

Plutarch

Plutarch (46 - 127 years old) is an ancient Greek writer and philosopher, a public figure. The most famous as the author of Labor "Comparative Signatures", in which he recreated images of the outstanding political figures of Greece and Rome.

Plutarch took place from a wealthy family living in the small town of Heronee in Besotia. In his youth in Athens, Plutarch studied philosophy (mainly at the ammonia Platonics), mathematics, rhetoric. Even in the youth of Plutarchs, along with the brother lamp and teacher, the Ammonim visited Delphi, where the context of Apollo was still preserved. This journey had a serious impact on the life and literary activities of Plutarch. Teaching his own sons, Plutarch collected young people in his house and created, a kind of, private academy, in which he played the role of mentor and lecturer.

Plutarch has repeatedly been in Rome and other places of Italy, had students, classes with whom in Greek (Latin he began to study only "on the slope of years"). In Rome, Plutarch met with nonopagorsians, and also tied friendship with many outstanding people. Becoming, purely formally, a member of the genus Mesutriev (in accordance with Roman legal practice), Plutarch received Roman citizenship and the new name - Mesutri Plutarch. Thanks to Sexane, he became the most influential person of his province: Emperor Traian forbade Ahaya's governor to spend any events without prerequisite with Plutarch. Such a situation allowed Plutarch to freely engage in public and educational activities in his homeland in Heronee, where he held not only the honorable position of the archontaeepim, but also more modest.

Contrary to the personal modesty of the philosopher, the fame of him spread throughout Greece, when Plutarch
fifty years turned out, he was elected the priest of the temple of Apollo Delphic. In 1877, during excavations in this area, archaeologists have discovered a pedestal erected in honor of him, with poetic laudatory initiation.

Plutarch left behind about 210 essays. Significant part of them reached our time. The worldview of the philosopher is simple enough: he believed in the existence of a higher intelligence - a wise teacher, who is tirelessly reminiscent of his negligent disciples about eternal universal values. Many of his creations are devoted to these values, they cover short spectrum Topics from practical psychology to cosmogony. All these works by tradition are customary to unite into one common treatise called "Moralia". In "Moralia" traditionally include about 80 essays. Plutarch was deeply a pious person and recognized the importance of traditional pagan religion to preserve morality.

The second conditional part of the creative heritage of Plutarch is called "parallel life ways", from more than seventy biographies compiled by him, they reached our days about fifty. In addition to the lives specific peopleWorks contain, also, stories about everyday life and public events of that time, in general, this is a monumental historical work on the Greco-Roman past. Plutarch, also interested in the psychology of animals ("On the intelligence of animals").

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"Know yourself and you know the whole world" - Socrates said. Isn't it today and psychologists and psychologists today? The philosophers of Greece came to such conclusions in the VII - VI centuries BC. "Truth is born in the dispute," mathematics, harmony, medicine - the foundation of modern sciences was laid by teachers of many great people of ancient Greece. Which of the philosophers studied the great Alexander Macedonian?

Socrates deeply despised luxury. Walking around the bazar and having missed the upholstery of the goods, he used to say: "How many things are in the world, without which you can do!"

In public life, this stage is characterized as the highest rise of Athenian Democracy III IV-II century BC. - Hellenistic stage. (Decay of the Greek cities and the establishment of the domination of Macedonia) IV I century BC - V, VI century AD - Roman philosophy. Greek culture VII - V centuries. BC. - This is the culture of society in which the leading role belongs to slave labor, although in certain industries that demanded highly qualified manufacturers, such as artistic craft, free work was widely applied.

Socrates - one of the dealers of dialectics as a method of finding and knowledge of truth. Chief Principle "" Know yourself and you know the whole world, "that is, the conviction is that self-knowledge is the path to the comprehension of the true good. In ethics, virtue is equal to knowledge, therefore, the mind pushes a person to good actions. A person knowing will not flow badly. Socrates expressed his teaching orally, transferring knowledge in the form of dialogues to his students whose writings we learned about Socrates.

Plato was not only a philosopher, but also the Olympic champion. Twice he won Pankration Competitions - Boxing Mixtures and Wrestling without Rules.

Having created a "short-circuit" method of conducting a dispute, Socrates argued that the truth is born only in the dispute in which a sage with a number of leading issues makes his opponents to recognize the malfunction of their own positions first, and then the validity of their opponent's views. The sage, according to Socrates, comes to the truth through self-knowledge, and then the knowledge of the objectively existing spirit, objectively existing truth. The idea of \u200b\u200bprofessional knowledge was essential in general political views of Socrates, from which the conclusions were made that a person who is not engaged in political activities professionally has no right to judge her. It was a challenge to the basic principles of Athenian democracy.

Plato's teachings are the first classic form of objective idealism. Ideas (among them the highest - the idea of \u200b\u200bthe good) - the eternal and unchanged prototype of things, the whole transient and volatile being. Things - likeness and reflection of ideas. These provisions are set forth in the writings of Plato "Pier", "Fedr", "State" and others. In the dialogues of Plato, we find the multifaceted characteristic of the beautiful. When answering the question: "What is beautiful?" He tried to characterize the essence of beauty. Ultimately, beauty for Plato is aesthetically peculiar idea. To know her person can, only being in a state of special inspiration. Beauty concept by Plato is idealistic. The idea of \u200b\u200bthe specificity of aesthetic experience is rational in his teaching.

Alexander Macedonsky subsequently said about his teacher: "I am an Aristotle with my father, because if I owe life to life, then Aristotle, what gives her the price."

Pupin Plato - Aristotle, was the educator of Alexander Macedonian. He is the founder of scientific philosophy, trays, teachings on the basic principles of being (possibilities and implementation, form and matter, cause and goal). The main areas of his interests are man, ethics, politics, art. Aristotle is the author of the books "Metaphysics", "Physics", "About the Soul", "Poetics". Unlike Plato for Aristotle, an excellent not an objective idea, but an objective quality of things. The value, proportion, order, symmetry - the properties of the beautiful.

Beauty, according to Aristotle, enclosed in mathematical proportions of things "Therefore, to comprehend it should be done by mathematics. Aristotle put forward the principle of human commensuity and an excellent item. The beauty of Aristotle acts as a measure, and the person is only a person. In comparison with it, an excellent item should not be "excessive". In these arudes of Aristotle about truly beautiful, the same humanistically and the principle, which is pronounced in the antician art itself. The philosophy answered the needs of the human orientation of a person who broke with traditional values \u200b\u200band turned to the mind as a way to clarify the problems.

The name of Pythagora means "the one who announced Pythia." The predictor of Delphi not only told the Father on the birth of a son, but also reported that he would bring so much benefit and good to people how many did not bring and would not bring anyone else in the future.

In mathematics, the Figure of Pythagora, which created a multiplication table and the theorem that is the name that studied the property of integers and proportions is distinguished. Pythagoreans developed the doctrine of "harmony of spheres". For them, the world is slim space. They associate the concept of an excellent not only of the universal picture of the world, but also in accordance with the moral and religious orientation of their philosophy with the concept of good. Working out the questions of musical acoustics, the Pythagoreans put the problem of the tone ratio and tried to give it a mathematical expression: the octave ratio to the main tone is 1: 2, quints - 2: 3, quarts - 3: 4, etc. Hence the conclusion that the beauty is harmonious.

Where the main opposites are in the "proportionate mixture", there is a good, human health. Equal and consistent in harmony does not need. Harmony performs where there is inequality, unity and complement to diverse. Music harmony - a private case of harmony world, its sound expression. "All sky is harmony and a number", planets are surrounded by air and attached to transparent spheres.

The intervals between the spheres are strictly harmonially correlated between themselves as intervals of the tones of the musical octave. From these representations of the Pythagoreans and the expression "Music of Spheres". The planets move, making sounds, and the height of the sound depends on the speed of their movement. However, our ear is not able to catch world harmony of spheres. These representations of the Pythagoreans are important as evidence of their confidence in the fact that the universe is harmonious.

As a means of baldness, hippocrates assigned a pigeon litter with his patients.

Democritus, which opened the existence of atoms, also paid attention to the search for a response to the question: "What is beauty?" He has aesthetics perfectly combined with his ethical views and with the principle of utilitarianism. He believed that a person should strive for bliss and benevolence. In his opinion, "one should not strive for any pleasure, but only to such that is connected with the beautiful." In the definition of beauty, democritus emphasizes such a property as a measure, proportionality. The one who breaks them, "the most pleasant can become unpleasant."

Herclite has a beauty understanding permeated with dialectic. For him, harmony is not static equilibrium, as for Pythagoreans, and a moving, dynamic state. The contradiction is the creator of harmony and the condition of the existence of the beautiful: diverging converges, and the most beautiful consent comes from the opposite, and everything happens due to discord. In this unity of the fighting opposites, Herclite sees a sample of harmony and the essence of the beautiful. For the first time, Heraclit raised the question of the nature of the perception of the beautiful: it is incomprehensible by calculating or distracted thinking, it knows intuitively, by contemplation.

Parmenid was born in a notable and rich family. His youth passed in fun and luxury. When the future philosopher and politician was happy with his pleasures, he began to contemplate the "clear face of truth in the silence of sweet teachings."

Knights of hippocratic in medicine and ethics are known. He is the founder of scientific medicine, the author of the teaching on the integrity of the human body, the theory of an individual approach to the patient, the tradition of conducting the history of the disease, works on medical ethics, in which special attention paid to the high moral appearance of the doctor, the author of the famous professional oath, which all receiving medical diploma. Until this day, his immortal rule came for doctors: do not harm the patient.

With the medicine of the Hippocrat, the transition from religious and mystical ideas about all the processes related to health and human diseases, to the initiated ionic natural philosophers, their rational explanation is to be changed .. Medicine of priests was replaced by medicine based on accurate observations. Hippocratic school doctors were also philosophers.

The central representative of the school under consideration is Parmenid (approx. 540 - 470 Gg. BC), a student of xenophane. Parmenid outlined their views in the work "On Nature", where his philosophical teaching is presented in allegorical form. In his work, reached us is incomplete, it is narrating about visiting the young man of the goddess, which tells him the truth about the world.

Parmenid sharply distinguishes the genuine truth and opinion relying on sensory cognition. According to his representation, essentially, it is erroneously considered as mobile. The teachings of Parmenide on Being dates back to the materialism line in ancient Greek philosophy. However, the material being has motionless and does not develop, it is spherical.

Zenon Elayky participated in a conspiracy against Tirana Niarg. When conducting interrogation, the requirement to issue accomplices, according to one data, bit off Tiran's ear, in others - bit his own language and spat it in the face of Niarch.

Pupil Parmenide was Zeno. His AKME (the flourishing of creativity - 40 years) falls for the period of about 460 BC. e. In his writings, he improved the argumentation of Parmenid's teachings about being and knowledge. He became famous for clarifying the contradictions between the mind and feelings. He expressed his views in the form of dialogues. Initially, he offers the opposite approval that he wishes to prove, and then argued that the opposite opposite statement is true.

The existence, according to Zenon, is material character, it is in unity and immobility. Fame he acquired due to attempts to prove the lack of multiplicity and movement of the fact. These methods of evidence were named epicerm and aquaries. Of particular interest are the aquistia against movement: "Dichotomy", "Ahhes and Turtle", "Arrow" and "Stadium".

In these apior, Zenon sought to prove not that there is no movement in the sensory world, but the fact that it is conceivable and inexpressible. Zeno raised the question of the difficulties of the conceptual expression and the need to apply new methods that later began to bind with dialectics.

The world has many different philosophical trends and schools. Some praise spiritual values, otherwise preaching a more pressing lifestyle. However, they are united by one thing - all of them are invented by a person. That is why, before starting to study the school of thoughts, you should figure out who is such a philosopher.

At the same time, it is necessary not only to know the meaning of this word, but also look back, in the past, in order to remember those who stood at the origins of the first schools of philosophy. After all, it is possible to comprehend the true essence of the question of who is such a philosopher.

People who dedicated themselves great reflections

So, as always, the story should be started with the main one. In this case, with the one who is a philosopher. After all, in the future, this word will be very often featured in the text, and therefore, without a clear understanding of his meaning, it will not be possible to do.

Well, the philosopher is a person who has completely devoted himself to reflections on the essence of being. At the same time, his main desire is the desire to understand the essence of what is happening, so to speak, look behind the scenes of life and death. Actually, such reflections and turn simple man in a philosopher.

It should be noted that such reflections are not just a fleeting passion or fun, this is the meaning of his life or even if you want, calling. That is why great philosophers devoted to permission from mutual questions of their free time.

Differences in philosophical currents

The next step will be awareness that all philosophers differ from each other. There is no universal view of the world or order of things. Even if thinkers adhere to one idea or worldview, in their judgments there will always be discrepancies.

This is due to the fact that the views of philosophers on the world depend on their personal experience and the ability to analyze the facts. That is why today's light saw hundreds of various philosophical currents. And they are all unique in their essence, which makes this science very multifaceted and cognitive.

And yet, in total there is a beginning, including philosophy. Therefore, it will be very logical to draw his gaze into the past and talk about those who founded this discipline. Namely on the ancient thinkers.

Socrates - the first of the great minds of antiquity

It follows from the one who considers the legend in the world of great thinkers - Socrates. He was born and lived in ancient Greece in 469-399 to our era. Unfortunately, this scientist husband did not lead records of his thoughts, so most of his sayings reached us only thanks to the efforts of his students.

He was the first to think about who is such a philosopher. Socrates believed that life makes sense only when a person intelligently lives her. He condemned his compatriots for the fact that they forgot about morality and mired in their own vices.

Alas, Socrates life ended tragic. The local government called his teaching heresy and sentenced to the death penalty. He did not wait for the execution of the sentence and voluntarily accepted the poison.

Great philosophers of ancient Greece

It is ancient Greece that is considered a place where the Western School of Philosophy originated. Many of the great minds of antiquity were born in this country. And although some of their teachings were rejected by contemporaries, they still should not be forgotten that the first philosophers scientists appeared here more than 2.5 thousand years ago.

Plato

Of all the students of Socrates, Plato was the most successful. Having absorbed the wisdom of the teacher, he continued to study the world around the world and his laws. Moreover, having enlisted the support of the people, he founded the Great Athenian Academy. It was here that he taught young students the basics of philosophical ideas and concepts.

Plato was confident that his teaching was able to give people the wisdom, which they are extremely necessary. He argued that only the educated and sober-minded person could create an ideal power.

Aristotle

A lot for the development of Western philosophy did Aristotle. This Greek graduated from the Athenian Academy, and Plato himself was one of his teachers. As Aristotle was distinguished by a special erudition, he soon called upon to teach in the Palace of the Governor. According to historical records, he trained Alexander Macedonian.

Roman philosophers and thinkers

The works of Greek thinkers were very influenced by cultural life In the Roman Empire. Inspired by the texts of Plato and Pythagora, the first Roman innovators philosophers began to appear at the beginning of the 2nd centuries. And although most of their theories resembled Greek, some differences in their teachings were still there. In particular, it was due to the fact that the Romans possessed their own concepts that such a higher blessing.

Mark Terency Varon

One of the first philosophers of Rome was Varon, born in the first century to our era. For his life, he wrote many works devoted to moral and spiritual values. He also put forward an interesting theory that each people have four stages of development: childhood, youth, maturity and old age.

Mark Tully Cicero

This is one of the most ancient Rome. Such glory came to Cicero due to the fact that he was finally able to unite Greek spirituality and Roman love for citizenship into one whole.

Today it is appreciated for the fact that he was one of the first to position the philosophy not as abstract science, but as part of a person's daily life. Cicero managed to convey to people the idea that everyone, if desired, could comprehend in particular, that is why he introduced his own dictionary that clarifies the essence of many philosophical terms.

Great Philosopher Podnebyne

Many attribute the idea of \u200b\u200bdemocracy to the Greeks, however, at the other end of the globe, one great sage was able to nominate the same theory, relying only on his own beliefs. It is this ancient philosopher and is considered to be Pearl Asia.

Confucius

China has always been considered the country of wise men, however, among all other special attention should be paid to Confucius. This great philosopher lived in 551-479. BC e. And he was a very famous person. The main task of his teaching was to preach the principles of high morality and personal virtues.

Names known to all

Over the years all more people It was designed to contribute to the development of philosophical ideas. All new and new schools and currents were born, and the lively discussions between their representatives became the usual norm. However, even in such conditions, those whose thoughts for the world of philosophers were like a sip of fresh air appeared.

Avicenna

Abu Ali Hussein Ibn Abdallah Ibn Sina - Takovo full name Avicenna, he was born in 980 in the territory of the Persian Empire. For your life, not one dozen scientific treatises related to physics and philosophy wrote.

In addition, he substantiated his own school. In it, he trained gifted young medicine, in which, by the way, very much succeeded.

Thomas Akvinsky

In 1225, a boy named Thoma was born. His parents did not assume that in the future he would become one of the most prominent minds in the philosophical world. He wrote a lot of works devoted to reflections on the world of Christians.

Moreover, in 1879, the Catholic Church recognized his works and made them the official philosophy for Catholics.

Rene Descartes

It is more famous as the father of the modern form of thought. Many know Him popular expression "If I think, then I exist." In his works, he considered the mind as the main weapon of man. The scientist studied the works of philosophers of various eras and brought them to his contemporaries.

In addition, Descartes made many new discoveries in other sciences, in particular in mathematics and physics.

- This is another topic for the article from the cycle of publications on the basics of philosophy. We learned the definition of philosophy, the subject of philosophy, its main sections, philosophy functions, fundamental problems and issues.

Other articles:

It is believed that philosophy originated about - in 7-6 centuries BC in ancient Greece and at the same time in ancient China and India. Some scientists believe that philosophy has appeared in Ancient Egypt. Undoubtedly, the Egyptian civilization had a huge impact on the civilization of Greece.

The philosophy of the ancient world (ancient Greece)

So, the philosophy of ancient Greece. This period in the history of philosophy is perhaps one of the most mysterious and fascinating. He's called Golden century of civilization. Often the question arises, how and why the philosophers of that time generated such a lot of brilliant ideas, thoughts and hypotheses? For example, a hypothesis that the world consists of elementary particles.

Antique philosophy is a philosophical direction that has developed throughout more than a thousand years from the end of the 7th century to our era, up to 6th century of our era.

Periods of the philosophy of ancient Greece

It is customary to share it for several periods.

• The first period is the early (up to 5th century BC. E.).He is divided naturalistic(in it, the most important place was allocated to the Space Start and Nature, when a person was not the main idea of \u200b\u200bphilosophy) and humanistic(There are already a person and its problems in it the main place, mainly ethical).
• Second period -classic (5-6th century BC. er). During this period, Plato and Aristotle systems developed. After them, the period of Hellenistic systems occurred. They were focused on the moral appearance of a person and the problems associated with the morality of society and one person.
• The last period is the philosophy of Hellenism.Divided by The early Hellenistic period (4-1 centuries BC) and the late Hellenistic period of the 1st century BC. e. - 4th century)

Features of the philosophy of the ancient world

Antique philosophy had a number of characteristic features that distinguished it from other philosophical trends.

• For this philosophy characteristic of syncretism That is, the foaminess of the most important problems, and this is its difference from later philosophical schools.
• For such philosophy characteristic and cosmocentricity- Cosmos according to it is associated with a man of inseparable connections.
• In the ancient philosophy, there were practically no philosophical laws, there was a lot in it designed at the level of concepts.
• Huge the value in it had logicAnd its development was engaged in leading philosophers of the time, among them Socrates and Aristotle.

Philosophical schools of the ancient world

Miletskaya school

One of the most ancient philosophical schools is considered to be Miletsky school. Among her founders was Falez., astronomer. He believed that there was a certain substance at the base. It is she who is a single start.

Anaximen It believed that the beginning of everything should be considered the air, it is in it that the infinity reflects and all objects change.

Anaximandr It is the founder of the idea that the worlds are endless and the basis of everything, according to his conviction, is the so-called Ageron. It represents an inexpressible substance, the basis of which remains unchanged, while its parts are constantly in the change.

School Pythagora.

Pythagoras Created a school in which students studied the laws of nature and human society, and also developed a system of mathematical evidence. Pythagoras believed that the human soul is immortal.

Elais school.

Xenophan Expressed his philosophical views in the form of poems and engaged in riding the gods, criticized religion. Parmenid One of the main representatives of this school, developed the idea of \u200b\u200bbeing and thinking in it. Zenon Eleysky Engaged in the development of logic and fought for the truth.

School Socrates.

Socrates Not engaged in writing philosophical works as his predecessors. He spoke to people on the street and in philosophical disputes argued his point of view. He was engaged in the development of dialectics, engaged in the development of the principles of rationalism in ethical refraction and believed that the one who had knowledge about what kind of virtue would not behave badly and harm others.

Thus, antique philosophy served as the basis for the further development of philosophical thought and had a huge impact on the minds of many thinkers of that time.

Books on the philosophy of ancient Greece

• Essay of the history of Greek philosophy. Eduard Gottloba Clerk. This is the famous essay, repeatedly reprinted in many countries. This is a popular and summary of ancient Greek philosophy.
• Philosophers of ancient Greece. Robert S. Brambo. From the book of Robert Brahbo (Doctors Philosophy of the University of Chicago), you will learn a description of the lives of philosophers, a description of their scientific concepts, ideas and theories.
• History of antique philosophy. Armen. The book is devoted exclusively to the content of ideas, concepts, ancient philosophical teachings.

The philosophy of ancient Greece - briefly, most importantly. VIDEO

Summary

Antique philosophy ancient Mira (Ancient Greece) The term "philosophy" himself created and has a huge impact on European and world philosophy so far.

Among all humanities, the philosophy is called the most insidious. After all, the name she asks humanity such complex, but also important questions as: "What is being?", "What is the meaning of life?", "Why do we live in this world?". Each of this topic is written hundreds of volumes, their authors tried to find the answer ...

But most often they confused even more when searching for truth. Among the numerous philosophers noted in history, the 10 most important can be distinguished. After all, they precisely they laid the foundations of future thinking processes, over which other scientists already fought.

Parmenid (520-450 BC). This ancient Greek philosopher lived even before Socrates. Like many other thinkers of that era, he was distinguished by incomprehensibleness and even some madness. Parmenid became the founder of a whole philosophical school in Elea. It was reached by his poem "On Nature". In it, the philosopher argues about the issues of knowledge and being. Parmenid argued that there is only forever and the constant being, which is identified with thinking. According to his logic, it is impossible to think about non-existence, and therefore it does not exist. After all, the thought is contradictory. "There is something that is not." The chief student of Parmenis is considered Zenon Elayky, but the works of the philosopher influenced Plato with Melissa.

Aristotle (384-322 BC). Along with the Aristotle Pipples of Antique Philosophy, it is considered also Plato with Socrates. But it was this person who was also different and his educational activities. Aristotle's school gave a great impetus to him in the development of creativity of numerous students. Today, scientists cannot even understand what exactly from the work belongs to the Grand Thinker. Aristotle became the first scientist who was able to create a versatile philosophical system. Later she will form the basis of many modern sciences. It was this philosopher that created a formal logic. And his views on the physical foundations of the Universe noticeably changed the further development of human thinking. The central teachings of Aristotle was the doctrine of the root causes - matter, form, cause and goal. This scientist laid the concepts of space and time. Aristotle paid much attention to the state theory. It is no coincidence that his most successful student is Alexander Macedonian, so much has achieved.

Mark Azeri (121-180). This man entered the story not only as the Roman emperor, but also as an outstanding philosopher's humanist of his era. Under the influence of another philosopher, his teacher Maxim Claudia, Mark Arellium created 12 books in Greek, united by the common name of "reasoning about himself." The work of "meditation" was written for the inner world of philosophers. There, the emperor told about the beliefs of the stoic philosophers, but not all of their ideas took. Stoicism was an important phenomenon for the Greeks and Romans, because he determined not only the rules of patience, but also indicated the ways to happiness. Mark Azeri believed that all people through their spirit are involved in ideologically common, which has no restrictions. Proceedings of this philosopher are easily read today, helping to solve some vital problems. I wonder what humanistic ideas The philosopher did not interfere with him to pursue the first Christians.

Anselm Canterbury (1033-1109). This medieval philosopher made a lot for Catholic theology. He is even considered the father of Scholastics, and the most famous work of Anselma Kenterbury became "Proslogion". In it, with the help of ontological evidence he led the unshakable evidence of the existence of God. The existence of God spacing the very concept. Anselm came to the conclusion that God is perfection, existing outside of us and outside of this world, surpassing all the imaginable. The main statements of the philosopher "Faith, requiring understanding" and "believe in understanding" then became peculiar devices of the Augustinian philosophical school. Among the followers of Anselma was Thomas Akvinsky. Pupils of the same philosopher continued to develop his views on the attitude of faith and mind. For his work for the benefit of the church in 1494, Anselm was canonized, becoming sainted. And in 1720, Pope Clement XI proclaimed the Holy Teacher of the Church.

Benedict Spinoza (1632-1677). Spinosa was born in a Jewish family, his ancestors after the expulsion from Portugal deliced \u200b\u200bin Amsterdam. In his youth, the philosopher studies the works of the best Jewish minds. But the spinosa began to express orthodox views and became close to the sectarians, which led to the excavation from the Jewish community. After all, his advanced views were in a contradiction with northern public glances. Spinosa fled to Hague, where he continued to improve. He earned his life with grinding lenses and private lessons. And in the free time from these ordinary classes, Spinosa wrote his philosophical works. In 1677, the scientist died from tuberculosis, his short-circuited disease was also aggravated by inhalation of dust lenses. Only after the death of Spinoza came out his main job - "Ethics". The philosopher's works were synthesized together the scientific ideas of ancient Greece and the Middle Ages, the works of the Stoikov, Neoplatonists and Scholastics. Spinosa tried to move the effect of Copernicus on science into the scope of ethics, politicians, metaphysics and psychology. Metaphysics Spinoza was based on the logic that it was necessary to determine the terms, formulate axioms and then with the help of logical consequences to output the rest of the provisions.

Arthur Schopenhauer (1788-1860). The contemporaries of the philosopher remembered him as a small ugly pessimist. He spent most of his life with his mother and cat in his apartment. Nevertheless, this considerable and ambitious person was able to make themselves among the most important thinkers, becoming the most striking representative of irrationalism. The source of Schopenhauer's ideas served as Plato, Kant and Ancient Indian Treaty of Upanishads. The philosopher became one of the first who dared to combine Eastern and Western culture. The difficulty of synthesis was that the first is irrational, and the second, on the contrary, is rational. The philosopher paid a lot of attention to the issues of the will of a person, his most famous aphorism became the phrase "will - a thing in herself." After all, it is she determines the existing, affecting him. The main work of the whole life of the philosopher became his "Peace, like will and idea." Schopenhauer outlined the main ways of decent life - art, moral asceticism and philosophy. In his opinion, it is art that the art can free the soul from life suffering. To others it is necessary to treat how to yourself. Although the philosopher sympathized with Christianity, he remained an atheist.

Friedrich Nietzsche (1844-1900). This man, despite the relatively short life, was able to achieve a lot in philosophy. Nietzsche's name is customary to associate with fascism. In fact, he was not a nationalist as his sister. The philosopher was generally interested in life around him. Nietzsche was able to create a distinctive teaching, which has nothing to do with academic character. Proceedings of the scientist questioned the generally accepted norms of morality, culture, religion and socio-political relations. What is only the famous phrase Nietzsche "God is dead." The philosopher was able to revive the interest in philosophy, blowing up the stagnant was the world with new views. The first work of Nietzsche, "Birth of the tragedy", immediately awarded the author with a label "terrible child of modern philosophy." The scientist tried to understand what Moral was. According to his views, it is not necessary to think about her truth, it is necessary to consider its service ministry. Nietzsche pragmatic approach is also noted in relation to philosophy and culture at all. The philosopher was able to withdraw the formula of the superhuman, which will not be limited to morality and morality, becoming aside from good and evil.

Roman Ingand (1893-1970). This Pole was one of the most prominent philosophers of the last century. He was a student of Hans-George Gadamera. Ingaden in Lviv survived the fascist occupation, continuing to work on his main labor, "dispute about the existence of the world." In this two-volume philosopher talks about art. The basis of the activity of the philosopher has become aesthetics, ontology and epistemology. Ingaden laid the foundations of realistic phenomenology, which is relevant so far. He studied the philosopher also literature, cinema, theory of knowledge. Ingaden translated into Polish philosophical work, including Kant, a lot was taught in universities.

Jean-Paul Sartre (1905-1980). This philosopher loves and popular in France. This is the brightest representative of atheistic existentialism. His positions were close to Marxism. At the same time, Sardr was also a writer, playwright, an essay and teacher. The work of philosophers is the concept of freedom. Sartre believed that she was an absolute concept, a person was simply condemned to be free. We ourselves must form themselves, responsible for their actions. Sartre said: "A person is a future person." There is no point in the surrounding world, it is the person who changes it with its activities. The work of the philosopher "Genesis and Nothing" became the most real Bible for young intellectuals. The Nobel Prize in Literature Sartre refused to accept, because I did not want to question my independence. The philosopher in its political activities has always defended the rights of disadvantaged and humiliated person. When Sartre died, 50 thousand people gathered him in the last path. Contemporaries believe that no other Frenchman gave the world as much as this philosopher.

Mauris Merlot-Ponti (1908-1961). This French philosopher one time was like-minded Sartra, being a supporter of existentialism and phenomenology. But then he moved away from communist glances. The main thoughts of Merlo-Ponti outlined in his work "Humanism and Terror". Researchers believe that it has features related to the fascist ideology. In the collection of their works, the author rigidly criticizes the supporters of Marxism. The influence of the philosopher was influenced by the influence of Kant, Hegel, Nietzsche and Freud, he himself was fond of the ideas of Gestalt Psychology. Based on the work of the predecessors and working on unknown works by Edmund Gusserly, Merlot-Ponti was able to create his body phenomenology. This teaching states that the body is not a clean creature nor a natural thing. This is just a turning point between culture and nature, between your own and strangers. The body in his understanding is a holistic "I", which is a subject of thinking, speech and freedom. The original philosophy of this Frenchman forced to rethink traditional philosophical themes in a new way. It is no coincidence that he is considered one of the main thinkers of the twentieth century.