Before making the calculation of the stairs, it is necessary to consider the main types of these structures.

Simple staircase design: 1 - channel; 2 - corrugated metal steps; 3 - steel "Films"; 4 - welding places; 5 - brackets fastening steps.

Straight stairs are the most simple sight This design. It is convenient to move, including to carry heavy things. If the house has high ceilings, and the ladder consists of more than 18 steps, it is recommended to arrange an intermediate platform in the middle of the structure. The disadvantage of this species is a large area of \u200b\u200bthe area.

Two-storey stairs have an intermediate platform and can be an angular or p-shaped. Although this type is characterized by the presence of an intermediate platform, due to its configuration, the design fits well in almost any room, including not so big size. In the P-shaped type, the width of the intermediate platform should be no less than the width of both marches, which must be taken into account when calculating the stairs.

Rewous stairs are a design of two or more marches, instead of intermediate sites in which special swivel (rush) steps are used. Combined species require minimum free space and easily fit into limited space. The disadvantage of this type is the complexity of the design, complex scheme stairs, since all the overall steps differ, have their own individual dimensions. And the boosters and railing are also characterized by complex curved forms. The calculation of the stairs of this type is also quite complicated.

The spiral staircase is the most economical view. The most optimal radius is 80-90 cm. The lack of such a design is a smaller convenience when moving on it, a steep rise, and heavy and large things are very difficult to raise it. The screw type is characterized by the complexity of the design, the calculation of the stairs is difficult, but they have an attractive and spectacular look.

This type of staircase, as a "samba" or "goose step", is also characterized by its economical configuration. The main thing distinctive feature is a staircase scheme, namely half steps that set a step sequence in strict next. Depending on the position of the first stage, the rise will always begin with one specific leg (right or left). This type is characterized by its steep rise. Most often, such a scheme of the staircase is used as auxiliary, for lifting in the attic, under conditions of an extremely limited place.

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Calculation of stairs when designing

If the house needs to install the staircase, you will have to solve a lot of questions. And not only relating to the species, materials, but also to carry out the calculation of the stairs.

After all, it is not enough to think about the model, you need to fit it in the room, taking into account the area and the height of the ceiling.

The first indicator, which is necessary for the calculation of the stairs is the height from the floor of one floor to the edge of the floor of the next floor. If the house is still chernovo finish, it is necessary to take into account the thickness of the finishing layer with all the substrates aligning materials, etc.

After that, the number of steps is calculated. To do this, the height of the room must be divided into the desired step. Upon receipt fractional number The calculation of stairs requires to make an adjustment towards a decrease or increase the number of steps according to which step will increase or decrease.

Each ladder has its own permanent size: it is a width of the sticking, the size of which is taken in the range from 130 to 225 mm. The parameter shows how long it is necessary to leave for the placement of the structure. This distance is obtained as a result of multiplying the values \u200b\u200bof the sticking on the number of steps. You must also add to the resulting number 80 mm, technical size. The distance vested to the first stage drop and part of the upper module. During the construction of the stairs, the calculation of its width must be taken into account the size of the room, and how many space can be allocated under the structure of the structure. According to the free area and the value is calculated.

It is worth considering that if the staircase does not fit a little into the size of the room, you can use one cunning. If thickness inter-storey overlap Makes more than 30 cm, then it is allowed to make an indentation down by 15-17 cm. The remaining distance is quite enough to secure the structure.

Self important role In the choice of design, dimensions are played. If it is too small (for example, the width is 700-900 mm, the length is 1100-1600 mm), then it will be possible to enter into it only the ladder "goose step".

Also the staircase scheme, its form depend on the desired step of lifting the stage and the width of the sticky.

It is worth noting that the smaller the step is the height of the one, respectively, they will need more steps, modules, balaasine, railings. And the longer there will be a staircase.

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Formulas for calculating elements of stairs

To calculate the stairs, there are several formulas that will enable the proper design.

Among them, the ratio of the height of the riser and to the width of the sticking B, which can be calculated by three formulas:

• formula Amenities: B - A \u003d 12 cm;
• formula of step: 2a + b \u003d 62 (60-64) cm;
• safety formula: A + B \u003d 46 cm.

Optimal is the ratio of 17/29, however, such deviations are allowed: Appeal: 26 ≤ B ≤ 32, an average of 29, the risers: 14 ≤ a≤ 20 on average 17.

The height of the lift H depends on the height of the room H and the thickness of the overlap D: H \u003d H + D. The number of N steps is calculated by the formula: n \u003d h / a.

The length of the projection of the stairs to the floor plane L depends on the number of steps N and the width of the sticking b and is calculated by the formula: L \u003d b * n.

Next, you should define the steepness of the stairs K. It depends on the height of lifting H (height from the floor of the lower floor to the floor of the upper) and the length of the design of the structure to the floor plane L. The result is calculated by the formula: k \u003d h / l.

Today, houses are so diverse today that the erected structures sometimes acquire a completely quaint look. Especially architects love to experiment with the roof, which is made and flat for picnics, and transparent for winter Gardenand in the form of a bizarre flower.

However, most practical remains the most simple options, such as a double roof. Consider the device rafter system double roof in this article.

With this design, a large attic space is created that does not require special insulation, so it is very popular when building residential buildings.

In addition, it is easy to install in contrast, for example, from four-page and does not require large investments during installation.

The double roof is a design of two rectangular surfaces, the upper parts of the connected to each other, and the bottom resting on the walls of the house.

Thus, the roof remains unclothed two triangular parts in the ends - frontoths. These parts are either performed by deaf, or used for the input device in the attic.

Very convenient to use the resulting attic room For an extra room, which can be used in the warm time. And if you make an effort and insulate it, then you will get a full room suitable for life and winter.

Main parts stropile roof visible in the figure:

• mauerlat, holding the whole design on the walls;
• rafters forming the roof itself;
• the doomle on which the roof coating is attached;
• the ski run connecting two planes of the roof at the top;
• racks and saws, additionally reinforcing roof.

The construction of the rafter can be two types:

• hanging;
• inclined.

Hanging rafters are fixed only at two points - on the skate and on the walls. Therefore, their design is subjected to two types of load - compression and bending. In addition, inclined in addition to this, in the middle part, rely on intermediate supports, which significantly reduces bending loads.

Most effective way The devices of the solid system of the two-tie roof is a combination of hanging and inclined rafters. Such a combination increases the strength of the structure and reduces the consumption of materials.

Thanks to such simplicity of design, the double roof has a number of advantages:

• simplicity of performance and repair when damaged;
• a small cost of work and materials;
• high wear resistance and strength;
• the low probability of leaks, since such a roof has no joints different surfaces, the design is almost whole;
• the ability to device a full-fledged residential area in the attic.

Payment

Before mounting a rafter system, it is necessary to carry out its calculation. This requires perfection and attentiveness, all calculations need to be tweaked a couple of times. Stay in the midst of work without the right building materials or, on the contrary, buying too much will cost you much more expensive.

In case the installation of a two-sheet roof is made by a detailed project, it is necessary to select all the elements of its design with the dimensions and the number of each position. Using the principles of rational cutting, fold the volumes by:

• species of sawn timber (M.P.);
• vaporizolation material (m 2);
• roofing (amount per pc, m 2);
• insulation (m 2).

For convenience, the cost is best calculated separately the area of \u200b\u200beach simple element Separately, and then fold the results obtained.

For clarity of the calculations, we calculate several options for the roof for houses of the same length of 8 m and width 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 m. We will define that the angle at the top of the roof (from the skate c) they will have the same - 120 °. The corners of the roof row at the mounting points to Mauerlat (A and B) also in this case will be the same - 30 °.

We begin with the calculation of the height of the roof H, it is calculated by the formula

Length of rafted speakers according to theorem rectangular triangle, calculated as half of the width of the house of AB, divided into sinus ½ angle α at the top

AC \u003d ½AV / SIN (α / 2) + 0.5 m

The value obtained is required to add the length of the cornese swell, which ranges from 0.5 to 0.8 m.

The total amount of material that we need for the manufacture of rafters, calculate how the product of the length of one rafter to the desired number of rafters.

The step of the rafter is chosen from the standard range of 0.6-1 m.

We define for our calculation that the step of the rafter will be 0.7 m.

In the area where there is elevated level Accumation of snow, it is necessary to strengthen the truck system - to establish a solid crate and paired rafters.

So, from the results obtained to make a table, studying which, you can understand how the width of the building affects the number of materials necessary for the device of the solid system of the two-tie roof.

Please note that the exact formulas calculates the exact value of the materials. On sale board, tile, slate and all other materials are only certain sizes. You are unlikely to purchase a 5.12 m long chalkboard. It is possible that the closest size will be 7 or even 8 m, and you will be unnecessary.

When calculating and buying a material, it is necessary to take into account that on sale it only has fixed sizes, which do not coincide with yours, and part it will go into waste.

Of course, the final calculation of the number of required materials is better to entrust the specialists, but using the proposed scheme, you can pre-determine what expenses you expect.

Installation

You can set the truck system in two ways:

• mount rafters directly at the installation site;
• mount the rafter pairs (farm) on earth and raise up.

The first method requires smaller physical effort, and the second allows you to use wide construction site and reduces the risk of falling from height.

"Farm" is called a pair of rafter feet interconnected in accordance with the project.

Required tool

From how you prepare for work, directly depends on how quickly and efficiently spend them and how convenient will you work.

For work on the device of the rafter system, it is necessary:

• ax;
• hammers different weight and species;
• nail holder;
• screwdriver;
• hacksaw or chainsaw;
• bulgarian;
• drill with a set of drills and zenker;
• long roulette;
• construction level and plumb;
• pencil, marker for applying;
• construction cord;
• fastening fittings: corners, planks, nails and self-tapping screws.

Making template

To facilitate the connection of the rafters in the farm and compliance with the same sizes, the template should be made on which the rafters will be cut off and connect. To do this, use two long boards by connecting them in the form of the letter A in exact accordance with the dimensions future roof. Then each rafter pair is adjusted to this pattern and secure, gradually forming a roofing system.

The rigidity of the built-in design directly depends on how high quality and firmly fixed with each other. Special metal lining should be used to increase the strength at the places of compounds.

Fastening rafted to Mauerlat

The most important element when installing the roof - fastening rafters to Mauerlat.

It can be carried out in two ways:

• rigid;
• sliding.

Hard fastening of rafters to Mauerlat eliminates any impacts on the resulting connection - shifts, turns, bends. Such durability can be achieved, stringly rafters with supports, bars, metal corners, use brackets and nails. Additionally, you can fix rafters to the wall with anchors or wire.

The moving fastening of rafters to Mauerlat has two degrees of freedom. This mount is recommended for roofs. wooden houses. The rafters are able to move along its longitudinal axis. To do this, they are placed in special cuts of Mauerlat, excluding lateral movements, but allowing you to move up and down. Such limiters can also be made from two limiting large nails or a special plate.

Ferm Installation

Farms are installed along the ends of the building, and the cord is tight between them. The cord must be strictly horizontally, which is controlled by the level. If one of his ends turns out to be higher than the other, then the farm, to which he is tied, will be necessary to lower a little.

To exclude the sagging of the rafter system from the load, it is required to increase the medium rafters with special pins.

The remaining rafters are installed in terms of this cord with the necessary step and are fixed with the disconsets, retaining beams and other methods provided by the project.

The device of a special electrical circuit with passing switches is a design of two or more products interconnected electrical wires and including himself lighting. Externally this option Performances are no different from the standard. The main thing a distinctive feature Performs the design of its contact group. Standard models Provide only closure and opening of the electrical circuit. In this article we will look at the device, appointment and principle of work passing switch Sveta.

Operating principle

The basis of the functioning of the passing models is the switching of reverse electrical conductors. The principle of operation is as follows: When the position of the keys changes, the opening of the same circuit occurs, and, at the same time, the closure of the other. Carefully having examined the schemes below, you can understand how the light switch works:

Because of this contact device, the passage switch would be more correct to call the switch. However, since the term is used for a long time, the introduction of official changes can only lead to an additional confusion. It can also be called a flip, cross and duplicating.

Application area

The use of the passage switch allows the consumer to control both the only source of lighting and a whole group of lamps from a number of different places. This means that the application is advisable in the territories with a significant area: at the stadium, in a large concert hall, tunnel, underground transition, basementor in private multi-storey houses With stairs I. long corridors. Denote by the example of life, for which this version is needed.

The consumer who rises to the second floor of the house includes a lamp on the first floor, when using the passage switch, you do not need to return down to turn it off. This allows the tenant at home to disconnect the light from the second floor. We were told about such a light control of the light in the article.

Very often, the switch is placed in the corridor, or in a long span, he has such a name "passing". Also, duplicate devices can be used to control in any territories.

Varieties of models

• By type of wiring, the models are distinguished for external and.
• Contact terminals inside the case, depending on constructive executioncan be performed with screw clamps, and can also be clamping springs.
• Depending on the number of keys, switches are distinguished with one key, with two keys, as well as with three or more.

Design

What makes a single-color passage switch and a device with multiple keys? The device with one key consists of three contacts; It includes one introductory terminal and two weekends.

The duplicate switch device is already with two keys the following: six contacts, that is, two input terminals and six output; With three - nine: three entrance and six output terminals, and so on.

The conventional designation on the conventional circuit breaker is a circle from which the branch of the M-shaped or t-shaped form is coming. M-shaped branch means to turn off in an open version, T-shaped - in hidden design. The number of branches means the number of keys.

Duplicate switches are depicted using the same figures, however, to distinguish them from standard devicesThe branching of the M-shaped and T-shaped shape is applied from two opposite sides of the circle.

It is possible to use the passage switch in electrical circuits as usual. As you know, in your idea, these switches should be used in a pair. If you start exploiting it without a pair, then it can serve as a regular switch, just interrupting the chain and shutting down the light. However, in this case, the expediency is lost and the essence of the application of this type of execution itself is lost, because the main feature The passing switches are their principle of operation based on switching.

There is also a way to control light sources, like wireless light switching. To control the light use a special console. The remote allows you to turn off / inclusion using a radio signal, directing it on the control relay connected to the lighting device. This event requires installation power blockwhich is received by the control command. The block is placed next to the light source, or in places where the wires are suitable for it.

So we looked at the device, the principle of operation and the purpose of the passage switches of light. We hope the information provided has been useful for you and interesting!

Children are amazing creatures. They have a unique look at the world, limitless fantasy and creative imagination that require constant feeding and development. Drawing, as one of the directions of creative gusts of the child, allows you to develop the perishability, patience, the concentration of attention, which in adulthood helps in many professions. In addition, drawing develops the motor and visual memory of the child and the shallow motility of the hands, directly affecting his speech.

For the development of drawing skills in their Chad, caring parents acquire numerous devices: pencils, brushes and paints, albums and chalk. But in the first positions in this list of gadgets and tools for children, two-sided easels are worthy.

Do I need an easel?

This question is asked by many parents who do not see sense in acquiring unnecessary things. However, it should be aware of what reasons drawing is called an important component in the life of children.

1. Development small Motoriki And the preparation of the hand to the letter.
   The correct capture of the pencil, chalk or felter adapts the children's hand to a certain form and position. The child learns to regulate the power of the pressure to get different lines and strokes. The brush is developing, the fingers become more skillful and flexible.
2. Development of abilities for creativity.
   A child who else can not think typically, template, sees the world in a special way. Thanks to this he comes up unusual combination Colors, outlines of objects and embodies them on paper. The child develops the ability to non-standard solutionsthat helps him in adult life.
3. Development of self-expression.
   Do not know how to express all your feelings verbally, the child can give them a way out on paper.
4. Development of concentration.
   Drawing favorably affects nervous system: Concentrating in the picture, the child is distracted by offense, problems and calm down.
5. Development of aesthetics and taste.
   The child has a sense of lovely, which will help him in adulthood. Dress up with taste, appreciate and enjoy life, open something new and amazing every time - all this is possible thanks to drawing.

From the above, it can be concluded that the drawing is useful and necessary for the harmonious development of the person. Or can the drawing harm? Yes, but only if the child spends too long for drawing in the "Sitting" position. The strenuous posture at the table leads to shortness and scoliosis. Output can be the acquisition of easel.

Molbert varieties

Children's easel is a drawing board, analogue of the workplace of artists. All of them are classified depending on the functionality and the materials from which they are made.

Depending on the material from which it is made children's Molbert.It can be wooden, metallic or plastic. In addition, they all add up, which makes it possible to remove them at any time and save space. Of all the varieties of children's double-sided easers are most versatile and functional.

The possibilities of bilateral easel

Double-sided easel is 2 working surfaces (black and metal whites) and an attached tool kit that includes:

• multicolored crayons for drawing on a stove black work surface;
• water based markers for drawings on a metal white working surface;
• sponge for erasing;
• figures and letters of the Russian or English alphabet on magnets.

Easels from proven, high-quality firms are also equipped with a shelf or penalty used as a stand for drawing accessories, and a paper sheet holder.

With this multifunctional easel of a child, you can teach:

• drawing with crayons, pencils, paints or wovers;
• reading letters and composing syllables, words;
• figures and account,
• games with cards on magnets.

From what age is it worth buying a two-way easel child?

It is definitely impossible to answer this question because the development and hobbies of each child are individual. In most instructions for bilateral easers, the initial age varies from 1.5 to 3 years. But if the child rolls the need for drawing before the "laid" age, think about the purchase. Especially since buying children's double-sided easel now does not seem complicated something: their sale is carried out in stores and the Internet.

Criteria for choosing the right easel in the nursery

Before you make a responsible purchase, it is worth considering all those parameters to which a good, high-quality and properly chosen one-sided one-sided easel.

1. Height. Drawing, the child should not slouch, bend or lifted on the tiptoe. If you want Molbert to become a unified purchase, and long years Pleased with you and your child, acquire the "growing" easel: it has a function of adjusting the height of the legs.
2. Production material. At the purchase stage should be solved, from which material you need a children's easel: plastic, wood or metal. Each of them has its pros and cons.

If purchasing bilateral easel It was well thought out for all listed items, he will be able to delight you and your child for many years!

How to place an easel in the children's

• sports, equipped with a Swedish wall, swings or horizontal bar;
• bedroom, equipped with bed, bedside table and night light;
• game.

Exactly at game zone Molbert for children should be placed younger age. It is important to consider the need good lighting: The light should fall on the left side, not soaring the pattern. It is best to post by the window. Under the support legs, it should be put up paper or oilcloth: a young artist in a rush creative process Maybe crayons, paints or felt-powder stains a carpet.


If, with the age of a child, the child will not pass to drawing, it makes sense to develop his hobbies more seriously and move the easel into the study area.

Double-sided easels for children are excellent drawing, game and training tools that can comprehensively develop a child and attach it to a creative environment. Modern easels are multifunctional and secure for the child: they are made of high-quality materials and undergo appropriate certification. If you have chosen for a child, it is two-way easel for a child, you can buy it in any children's store or on the Internet, choosing from a large list of goods the one that is perfect for your baby. Will affect the future of your child - give him an easel! And let him develop drawing!

Entrance metal double doors represent a design of two doors. Most often these are two doors, outdoor and internal, and the outdoor opens on staircase, and internal - in the apartment. In some cases, under the phrase "double entrance doors"Measures a double door, but it is rather an exception than the rule.

It is convenient to install double entrance doors when it allows the width of the doorway and there is no second single-door door to the apartment. There are projects of houses, where the double door is provided with the design, and the architecture of the building contributes to such a choice. Sometimes double doors are installed and in accordance with technological restrictions.

Double door: Increased safety of your home.

For the same reasons, double doors with framugs can be installed. Their advantage is that they can easily overlap the opening of large sizes.

Before you start choosing a double metal door, you should pay attention to the components of the structure. Framuga is a static element of metal doors, which does not open and manufactured from the same materials as the other parts of the double door. Framuga consists of an outer and inner cover. For greater strength, it has rigidity ribs. Also, the fraumuga must have excellent insulating properties: do not pass warm and sound.

Double entrances metal doors can be with a collapsible fraumuga, or represented by a one-piece element. Due to this, such doors can close the openings of different, including non-standard, sizes.

Framuga can be an all-welded with a box of the door - then the metal structures will be uniform. But it can also be removable and attached separately.

The most basic when selecting double entrance doors is the choice of the parameters of the fixed and rotary sash. Because A similar door design consists of two canvases, in addition to the main locking mechanism, the doors are equipped with a special lock, locking the fixed sash. Double doors are no less reliable than ordinary single-holder, because Their design implies a profile door frame. If you want to install the metal and wooden entrance doors at the same time, then you need to thoroughly check their size.

Most often double metal entrance doors are installed in apartment houses To create a tambour before adjacent apartments. A common occurrence in such cases - the installation of the usual is not armored iron Door Without additional protective elements. Therefore, the attacker will not be much difficult to discover such a door, and in the vestibule it is much more convenient to open the locks on the other entrance doors. Therefore, you should take care of security, and carefully approach the selection of a tambourine door.

Tambourous doors serve to control access to the room. In most cases, such doors are not inspected.

If bivalve entrance doors are installed as an external one, then a visor is required over them to reduce the effects on the doors of the sun's rays, the temperature drop and other effects.

Types of double doors

Double metal doors can be installed as independent designOr in a tandem with a wooden single door. The most common installation options:

In addition to this design, double entrance doors can consist of two sash. It's pretty convenient - if you need to put a large house household appliances, The second sash opens, significantly increasing the width of the opening.

Installation double door appropriate with the width of the opening more than 110 cm. They can be installed not only in residential buildings, but also to offices, public buildings or industrial premises - Everywhere, where non-standard doorway width will not allow the usual door. Double doors are often used as driveway.

Depending on the purpose and configuration, double entrance doors are characterized by such parameters:

• door finish (external and internal);
• type of castle systems;
• accessories;
• insulating characteristics.

Despite the fact that double metal entrance doors themselves already non-standard formthey can have unusual arched shape And finish. Often together S. decorative materials Used artistic forging, giving the doors an elegant and stylish look.

The entrance door decorated with artistic forging will always be unique.

Pros and Cons Metal Double Doors

Consider why dual metal doors are gaining popularity and are increasingly installed not only in office rooms, but also as entrance doors in the apartment.

1. Double metal doors provide a high security class. Even if one door is hacked, the second will delay the attackers before the arrival of law enforcement agencies.
2. Double doors provide much better thermal insulation than single. If the entrance doors come out in a tambour, but on the staircase, such a parameter is especially important.
3. Available cost. Input metal doors are not only more reliable, but also cheaper made by their tree. Almost everyone can afford steel doors.
4. If you put metal double doors, you do not have to spend money on their service. They will not require additional operating costs other than installation.
5. Metal entrance doors are durable and reliable. High-quality metal is not deformed under the influence of atmospheric precipitation, it moves well sun rays and physical impact.

These benefits when installing double metal doors are very significant, but there are disadvantages:

1. Metal in its structure does not support a healthy microclimate in the apartment.
2. Many consider metal doors too rude.
3. Compared to wooden, steel doors spend sound well.

Double metal doors will ensure inexhibence to your home.

Thus, the input metal doors are the optimal value for money, they are indispensable for the apartment and reliably protect you and your property.